Stomach

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Stomach is an important organ for pathologists. It is often inflamed and may be a site that cancer arises from. Gastroenterologists often biopsy the organ. Surgeon take-out the organ. It connects the esophagus to the duodenum. An introduction to gastrointestinal pathology is in the gastrointestinal pathology article.

Normal stomach

Gross anatomy

  • Cardia - first part of the stomach; joins with esophagus.
  • Fundus - superior portion - not attached directly to the esophagus.
  • Body - contains parietal cells.
  • Pylorus - distal (think pyloric stenosis); it joins with the duodenum.

Image

  • Stomach anatomy (WC)

Microscopic

Foveolar cells versus intestinal goblet cells

  • Intestinal goblet cells - clear mucin.
  • Foveolar cells - eosinophilic contents.

Stomach versus intestine

A tabular comparison:[1]

Feature Intestine Stomach
Spacing Goblets cell - spaced Foveolar cells - beside one another
Morphology of epithelial cells columnar tall columnar (Champagne flute)
Vesicle at luminal surface touching/small opening wide open
PAS-D -ve (???) +ve[2]
Villin stain[3][4] +ve -ve
Images Tubular adenoma - goblet
cells on right of image (WC) 		Gastric biopsy (microscopy-uk.org.uk),
Stomach with cancer - PAS (WC), Stomach (WC)

Notes:

  • Intraepithelial lymphocytes in the gastric mucosa have a clear halo around 'em.[5]
  • Memory device: Folveolar cells have friends, i.e. they are close to other foveolar cells.

Gastric antrum versus gastric body

Cell Body Antrum Histology Image
Parietal cell abundant few or none parietal cells: intensely
eosinophilic cytoplasm
 
Parietal cells. (WC)
Chief cell present absent chief cells: basophilic cytoplasm,
IHC: +ve for pepsinogen I
 
Chief cells. (WC)
G cell absent present fried egg appearance (clear cytoplasm,
round nucleus); look at high power -
usu. middle 1/3 of gland,[6]
IHC: +ve for gastrin.
 
G cell hyperplasia. (WC)
Surface flat blunted villi antrum is somewhat
duodenum-like
 
Body - flat. (WC)
Gastric glands
/ mucosa 		thick thin not so useful for
discrimination 		body - thick, body & antrum

Notes:

  • G cells may superficially resemble intraepithelial lymphocytes.
    • G cell nucleus is usu. perfectly round and slightly larger (diameter of 12 micrometers?) than a lymphocyte nucleus (diameter ~ 9-10 micrometers?).

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Short version

STOMACH, BIOPSY:
- BODY AND ANTRAL-TYPE GASTRIC MUCOSA WITHIN NORMAL LIMITS.

STOMACH, BIOPSY:
- BODY AND ANTRAL-TYPE GASTRIC MUCOSA WITHIN NORMAL LIMITS.
- NEGATIVE FOR HELICOBACTER-LIKE ORGANISMS.

STOMACH, BIOPSY:
- ANTRAL-TYPE GASTRIC MUCOSA WITHIN NORMAL LIMITS.
- NEGATIVE FOR HELICOBACTER-LIKE ORGANISMS.

Long version

STOMACH, BIOPSY:
- BODY/ANTRAL-TYPE GASTRIC MUCOSA.
- INFLAMMATION: ABSENT.
- ATROPHY: ABSENT.
- INTESTINAL METAPLASIA: ABSENT.
- HELICOBACTER-LIKE ORGANISMS: NOT IDENTIFIED WITH ROUTINE STAINS.
- NEGATIVE FOR DYSPLASIA AND NEGATIVE FOR MALIGNANCY.

Sleeve gastrectomy

STOMACH, GREATER CURVE, SLEEVE GASTRECTOMY:
- STOMACH WALL WITHIN NORMAL LIMITS.

Introduction

Useful stains for stomach

Things to look for...

  • Parietal cells (indicate you're in the body of the stomach) - pink (eosinophilic) cytoplasm.
    • Lack of parietal cells -- DDx: Bx of antrum (pylorus), Bx of cardia, pernicious anemia.
  • Goblet cells = intestinal metaplasia.
  • Architectural distortion of gastric glands - suspect cancer.
  • Signet ring cells = (usually) gastric carcinoma.
    • Can be very easy to miss in some biopsies.
  • Inflammation + small bacteria = suspect H. pylori gastritis.

Some patterns

Gastric atrophy

General

  • Has a wide differential diagnosis.

Microscopic

Can take three general forms:

  1. Intestinal metaplasia - see intestinal metaplasia section.
  2. Pseudopyloric metaplasia; gastric body looks like gastric antrum.
    • Characterized by foveolar hyperplasia.
  3. Cell loss without replacement.
    • Clue is deep inflammation in the body.

Plasma cells in the stomach

DDx of plasmacytosis:

Granulomatous gastritis

  • Usual DDx of granulomatous disease (see Basics article):
    • DNF AAII:
      • Drugs, Neoplasms, Foreign body, Autoimmune, Allergic, Infectious, Idiopathic.

Important ones:

Non-neoplastic disease

Peptic ulcer disease

  • Abbreviated PUD.
For duodenal manifestations see Peptic duodenitis.

General

  • Benign.

Complications:

  • Hemorrhage.
  • Obstruction.
  • Perforation - can be fatal.

Etiology - typically:[11]

Gross

Features:

  • Typically in the duodenum; duodenum:stomach = ~4:1.
    • Epithelial defect with punched-out edges (suggestive of a benign process).

Note:

  • Heaped edges - suggestive of cancer.

Endoscopic image

  • Gastric ulcer. (WC)

Microscopic

Features:

Gastritis

Main article: Gastritis
Main article: Chronic gastritis
Main article: Acute gastritis

Helicobacter gastritis

Main article: Helicobacter gastritis

Intestinal metaplasia of the stomach

Main article: Intestinal metaplasia of the stomach

Inflammatory bowel disease & the stomach

See inflammatory bowel disease.
  • Histopathologic findings are usually non-specific.
  • Conventional thinking was upper GI involvement = Crohn's disease; this is changing.[12]

Microscopic

Features:[13]

  • Focal inflammation.
    • Common finding - non-specific.
  • +/-Granulomas.

Miscellaneous

This is a grab bag of stuff seen in the stomach. Some of it is quite rare.

Gastric antral vascular ectasia

Main article: Gastric antral vascular ectasia

Reactive gastropathy

Main article: Reactive gastropathy

Autoimmune metaplastic atrophic gastritis

  • AKA autoimmune gastritis.
Main article: Autoimmune metaplastic atrophic gastritis

Collagenous gastritis

Main article: Collagenous gastritis

Gastritis cystitis profunda

General

  • May be associated with glandular proliferation as well.[14] (???)
  • Super rare.
  • Similar to cystitis cystica.

Microscopic

Features:

  • Cystic spaces lined by foveolar epithelium.

Ménétrier's disease

Main article: Ménétrier's disease

Gastric xanthoma

  • Abbreviated GX.
  • AKA xanthelasma.
  • AKA stomach lipidosis.

General

  • Uncommon.
  • Benign.

Gross/endoscopic

  • Yellowish nodule or plaque.[15]
    • Classically lesser curvature and antrum.[16]

Microscopic

Features:[15]

  • Collections of gastric lamina propria with lipid-laden macrophages.

DDx:

Images

  • Xanthoma. (WC)

www:

IHC

  • CD68 +ve.
  • Panker (AE1/AE3) -ve.

Gastric ischemia

Gastric necrosis redirects here.

General

  • Rare.
  • May arise due to:
    • Small bowel obstruction.[17]
    • Therapeutic embolization.[18]

Microscopic

Features:

  • +/-Pseudomembrane formation.[19]
  • Necrosis of the epithelium lining the gastric pits.

Image:

Portal hypertensive gastropathy

  • Abbreviated PHG.

General

Gross

Features:[21]

Note:

  • May mimic eosinophilic gastritis.[22]

Images

  • PHG. (WC/Samir)

Microscopic

Features:[23]

  • Dilated capillaries in the submucosa (prominent) and to a lesser extent in the lamina propria - key feature.

Notes:

DDx:

Sign out

STOMACH, BIOPSY:
- ANTRAL-TYPE AND BODY-TYPE GASTRIC MUCOSA WITH PROMINENT CAPILLARIES 
AND MODERATE CHRONIC INACTIVE INFLAMMATION.
- NEGATIVE FOR HELICOBACTER-LIKE ORGANISMS.
- NEGATIVE FOR INTESTINAL METAPLASIA.
- NEGATIVE FOR DYSPLASIA AND NEGATIVE FOR MALIGNANCY.

COMMENT:
No fibrin thrombi are seen.  The findings are compatible with portal hypertension.
Clinical correlation is required.

Amyloidosis of the stomach

  • AKA gastric amyloidosis.
Main article: Amyloidosis

General

Gross/endoscopy

  • Red/swollen gastric folds.[25]

Endoscopic DDx:

Microscopic

Features:

  • Lamina propria expanded by amorphous paucicellular material.

Image:

Stains

Gastric polyps

Similar to colonic polyps - see intestinal polyps.

DDx polyp (similar to colon & rectum):

Inflammatory fibroid polyp

Main article: Inflammatory fibroid polyp

Hyperplastic polyp of the stomach

Main article: Hyperplastic polyp of the stomach

Fundic gland polyp

Main article: Fundic gland polyp

Neoplastic

The spectrum from benign to malignant is divided into five:[28]

  1. Benign.
  2. Indefinite for gastric epithelial dysplasia.
  3. Low-grade gastric epithelial dysplasia.
  4. High-grade gastric epithelial dysplasia.
  5. Gastric carcinoma.

Gastric dysplasia

Gastric adenoma directs here.
  • AKA gastric columnar dysplasia.

General

  • Lesions that protrude into the lumen and are macroscopically apparent are known as: adenomas.[28]
  • Polypoid forms are grouped various ways.[29]

Grading

Like in the colon - they are divided into:

  • Low grade.
  • High grade.

Subclassification

One subclassification:[30]

  • Intestinal: goblet cells or Paneth cells.
    • Not associated with FAP.
  • Gastric: foveolar epithelium.

Microscopic

  • Histologic criteria similar to columnar dysplasia in the esophagus.
    • The threshold is much lower than in the colon and rectum.

Foveolar type

Features:

  • Hyperchromasia at the surface - key feature.
  • Cytoplasm with (shortened) champagne flute-like luminal aspect (apical mucin caps).
  • Nuclear changes:
    • Hyperchromasia.
    • Enlargement.
  • No intestinal metaplasia.

DDx:

Intestinal type

Features - intestinal:

  • Intestinal metaplasia.
  • Hyperchromasia of cytoplasm.
  • Nuclear changes:
    • Loss of nuclear polarity.
    • Increased NC ratio.
    • Elongation of nucleus and pseudostratification.

DDx:

Images

  • Gastric adenoma. (WC/KGH)

  • Gastric adenoma. (WC/KGH)

www:

Grading

Low-grade gastric dysplasia

Features:

  • Nuclear changes:
    • Nuclear crowding/pseudostratification with hyperchromasia.
    • Elongation of nuclei (cigar-shaped nuclei).
    • Nuclear stratification intact; nuclei close to the basement membrane.
  • Architecture:
    • Focal irregularities in the glandular contours.

Negatives:

  • No desmoplasia.
  • No necrosis.
  • No surface maturation.

DDx:

  • Indefinite for dysplasia.
  • High-grade gastric columnar dysplasia - see below.
    • The threshold is much lower than in the colon and rectum!

Images:

High-grade gastric dysplasia

Features:

  • Nuclear changes:
    • Round hyperchromatic nuclei.
    • Loss of normal nuclear stratification.
  • Architecture:
    • Irregularities in the glandular contours.
    • Back-to-back glands.
    • Cribriforming of the glands.
    • +/-Necrosis.

Negatives:

DDx:

Images

  • High grade gastric dysplasia - low mag. (WC/Nephron)

  • High grade gastric dysplasia - very high mag. (WC/Nephron)

www:

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Indefinite for dypslasia

STOMACH, ANTRUM, BIOPSIES:
- ANTRAL-TYPE MUCOSA INDEFINITE FOR DYSPLASIA WITH MODERATE CHRONIC INFLAMMATION.
- EXTENSIVE INTESTINAL METAPLASIA.
- NEGATIVE FOR HELICOBACTER-LIKE ORGANSIMS.
- NEGATIVE FOR MALIGNANCY.

Intestinal type

 STOMACH, ANTRUM, BIOPSIES:
- ANTRAL-TYPE MUCOSA WITH FOCUS OF LOW-GRADE DYSPLASIA (INTESTINAL TYPE).
- EXTENSIVE INTESTINAL METAPLASIA.
- MODERATE CHRONIC INFLAMMATION.
- NEGATIVE FOR HELICOBACTER-LIKE ORGANSIMS.
- NEGATIVE FOR MALIGNANCY.

Foveolar type

 STOMACH POLYP, BIOPSY:
- ADENOMATOUS POLYP, FOVEOLAR TYPE.
- NEGATIVE FOR HIGH-GRADE DYSPLASIA. 
- NEGATIVE FOR HELICOBACTER-LIKE ORGANISMS.

Gastric neuroendocrine tumour

  • AKA neuroendocrine tumour of the stomach.

General

  • Behaviour dependent on the subtype.
  • Uncommon.

Overview of subtypes

Divided into four types:[33]

Tumour type Relative prevalence Multifocality Tumour size Typical location Clinical Other Histology
Type 1 ~75% yes small (5-10 mm) body benign typically, female:male ~ 4:1, 50-60 years chronic atrophic gastritis - usu. autoimmune WDNET, WDNEC
Type 2 rare yes small ~15 mm body aggressive, ~50 years old assoc. MEN I, hyperchlorhydia WDNEC, WDNET
Type 3 10-15% no small and large variable location aggressive if >2.0 cm, males > females normal gastrin levels WDNET
Type 4 extremely rare no large variable location aggressive (mets usu. at time of Dx), males > females elevated gastrin d/t parietal cell dysfunction PDNEC

Notes:

  • WDNET = well-differentiated neuroendocrine tumour.
  • WDNEC = well-differentiated neuroendocrine carcinoma.
  • PDNEC = poorly-differentiated neuroendocrine carinoma.

Microscopic

See neuroendocrine tumours

Neoplastic rare

Gastric calcifying fibrous tumour

Main article: Calcifying fibrous tumour

Gastric cancer

Gastric lymphoma

Main article: MALT lymphoma

General

  • Associated with helicobacter infection.[34]
  • Usually MALT lymphoma (mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma).

Microscopic

Features:

  • Sheets of lymphoid cells.
  • "Lymphoepithelial lesion" - gastric crypts invaded by a monomorphous population of lymphocytes.[35]
    • Features:
      1. Cluster of lymphocytes - three cells or more - key feature.
        • Single lymphocytes don't count.
      2. Clearing around the lymphocyte cluster.
    • Associated with MALT lymphoma;[36] however, not specific.

DDx:

IHC

  • Panker -- most useful.

Others:

  • CD3 (T cells) - scatter positivity.
  • CD20 (B cells) +ve.
  • CD138 (plasma cells).
  • kappa, lambda -- often one is predominant, suggesting clonality.
  • BCL2 +ve.

Treatment

  • Triple therapy (two antibiotics, proton pump inhibitor (PPI)).[39]
  • Surgery - if triple therapy fails.

Review paper: PMID 16950858.

Hereditary gastric cancer

Several syndromes are associated with gastric cancer:[40]

Disease Gene Histology Other
Hereditary diffuse gastric cancer (HDGC) syndrome CDH1 (E-cadherin)[41] diffuse - more specifically signet ring cell carcinoma most important; assoc. invasive lobular carcinoma[42]
Lynch syndrome MSH2, MLH1, others ? colorectal carcinoma, endometrial carcinoma
Familial adenomatous polyposis APC ? adenomatous polyps
Peutz-Jeghers syndrome STK11 ? stomach hamartomas - not precursor
Li-Fraumeni syndrome TP53 (p53) ? AKA SBLA syndrome = sarcomas, breast, brain, leukemia, laryngeal, lung, adrenocortical carcinoma
Familial breast and ovarian cancer 2[43] BRCA2 ? ?

Gastric adenocarcinoma

General

Epidemiology:

  • Prognosis is often poor as it is discovered at a late stage.
  • Higher prevalence in countries in the far east (e.g. Japan) - thought to be environmental, e.g. diet.

Risk factors:

Note:

  • Possible association with tobacco use - dependent on the study.[45]

Treatment:

  • Surgical excision.
    • Proximal tumours may require a complete gastrectomy as the stomach is innervated from its proximal part.

Classification

  • Two different classification schemes.
    • Lauren[46] - two types:
      • Intestinal type (mass forming).
      • Diffuse type (infiltrative).
    • WHO classification - 6 subtypes for adenocarcinoma:[47]
      1. Papillary carcinoma.
      2. Tubular carcinoma.
      3. Mucinous carcinoma.
      4. Signet-ring carcinoma.
      5. Undifferentiated carcinoma.
      6. Adenosquamous carcinoma.

Lame memory device STOMACH:

  • Signet ring, Tubular, Oh papillary, Mucinous, Adenosquamouas, Crappy High grade (Undifferentiated).

Gross

Location:

  • Large carcinomas preferentially involve the lesser curvature.[48]
  • Ulceration with heaped (raised) edges.
    • Appearance of the typical intestinal type tumour.
  • Diffuse wall thickening with loss of the rugae - called linitis plastica.
    • Typically due to diffuse carcinoma.

Main DDx of ulcer:

  • Peptic ulcer disease - have a "punched-out" appearance: sharp edge, no granularity of surrounding mucosa.

Images:

Microscopic

Features - variable, either of the two following:

  1. "Typical adenocarcinoma":
    • Gland-forming lesion that infiltrates into the lamina propria or beyond.
    • Nuclear pleomorphism - common.
  2. +/-Signet ring carcinoma.
    • Scattered single cells in the lamina propria or beyond with:
      • Abundant cytoplasm containing one large (mucin-filled) vacuole.
      • A peripheral nucleus (displaced by the vacuole).

DDx:

Images:

Stains

  • Mucicarmine +ve.

IHC

  • CK7 +ve.
  • CK20 -ve, occasionally +ve.

Others:

  • p53 +ve in upto 75% of cases.[49]

Molecular

  • May have HER2 over expression - more common in intestinal-type tumours.[50]
    • Poor prognosis - like in breast cancer.
    • Scoring system different than in breast cancer - complete membrane staining is not required.

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Biopsy

Intestinal type
STOMACH, BIOPSY:
- INVASIVE ADENOCARCINOMA, INTESTINAL TYPE, MODERATELY DIFFERENTIATED.
- Gastric mucosa with moderate chronic active inflammation and extensive
   intestinal metaplasia.
- Benign small bowel mucosa with erosions.
Diffuse type
STOMACH, BIOPSY:
- INVASIVE ADENOCARCINOMA, DIFFUSE TYPE.

COMMENT:
A pankeratin immunostain demonstrates single (infiltrating) epithelial cells in the
lamina propria.
Micro

The tumour consists of single cells with abundant foamy-appearing cytoplasm and eccentric nuclei with mild nuclear atypia.

See also

References

  1. ↑ ALS. 4 Feb 2009.
  2. ↑ Rubio, CA. (Jun 2007). "Gastric duodenal metaplasia in duodenal adenomas.". J Clin Pathol 60 (6): 661-3. doi:10.1136/jcp.2006.039388. PMC 1955048. PMID 16837629. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1955048/.
  3. ↑ Osborn M, Mazzoleni G, Santini D, Marrano D, Martinelli G, Weber K (1988). "Villin, intestinal brush border hydrolases and keratin polypeptides in intestinal metaplasia and gastric cancer; an immunohistologic study emphasizing the different degrees of intestinal and gastric differentiation in signet ring cell carcinomas". Virchows Arch A Pathol Anat Histopathol 413 (4): 303–12. PMID 2459839.
  4. ↑ Braunstein, EM.; Qiao, XT.; Madison, B.; Pinson, K.; Dunbar, L.; Gumucio, DL. (May 2002). "Villin: A marker for development of the epithelial pyloric border.". Dev Dyn 224 (1): 90-102. doi:10.1002/dvdy.10091. PMID 11984877.
  5. ↑ Sternberg H4P 2nd Ed., P.484
  6. ↑ URL: http://www.lab.anhb.uwa.edu.au/mb140/CorePages/GIT/git.htm. Accessed on: 3 December 2010.
  7. ↑ http://www.histology-world.com/stains/stains.htm
  8. ↑ Goggin N, Rowland M, Imrie C, Walsh D, Clyne M, Drumm B (December 1998). "Effect of Helicobacter pylori eradication on the natural history of duodenal ulcer disease". Arch. Dis. Child. 79 (6): 502-5. PMC 1717771. PMID 10210995. http://adc.bmj.com/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10210995.
  9. ↑ http://www.histology-world.com/stains/stains.htm
  10. ↑ http://www.histology-world.com/stains/stains.htm
  11. ↑ Malfertheiner, P.; Chan, FK.; McColl, KE. (Oct 2009). "Peptic ulcer disease.". Lancet 374 (9699): 1449-61. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60938-7. PMID 19683340.
  12. ↑ Lin J, McKenna BJ, Appelman HD (November 2010). "Morphologic findings in upper gastrointestinal biopsies of patients with ulcerative colitis: a controlled study". Am. J. Surg. Pathol. 34 (11): 1672–7. doi:10.1097/PAS.0b013e3181f3de93. PMID 20962621.
  13. ↑ RK. 13 December 2010.
  14. ↑ URL: http://www.springerlink.com/content/u2v2525241754557/ Accessed on: 19 November 2010.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Iacobuzio-Donahue, Christine A.; Montgomery, Elizabeth A. (2005). Gastrointestinal and Liver Pathology: A Volume in the Foundations in Diagnostic Pathology Series (1st ed.). Churchill Livingstone. pp. 111. ISBN 978-0443066573.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Drude, RB.; Balart, LA.; Herrington, JP.; Beckman, EN.; Burns, TW. (Jun 1982). "Gastric xanthoma: histologic similarity to signet ring cell carcinoma.". J Clin Gastroenterol 4 (3): 217-21. PMID 6284833.
  17. ↑ Steen, S.; Lamont, J.; Petrey, L. (Jan 2008). "Acute gastric dilation and ischemia secondary to small bowel obstruction.". Proc (Bayl Univ Med Cent) 21 (1): 15-7. PMC 2190544. PMID 18209748. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2190544/.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Papanikolaou, IS.; Foukas, PG.; Sioulas, A.; Beintaris, I.; Panagopoulos, P.; Karamanolis, G.; Panayiotides, IG.; Dimitriadis, G. et al. (2011). "A case of gastric ischemic necrosis.". Endoscopy 43 Suppl 2 UCTN: E342. doi:10.1055/s-0030-1256795. PMID 22020717.
  19. ↑ Herman, J.; Chavalitdhamrong, D.; Jensen, DM.; Cortina, G.; Manuyakorn, A.; Jutabha, R. (Apr 2011). "The significance of gastric and duodenal histological ischemia reported on endoscopic biopsy.". Endoscopy 43 (4): 365-8. doi:10.1055/s-0030-1256040. PMID 21360426.
  20. ↑ Mesihovic, R.; Prohic, D.; Gribajcevic, M.; Vanis, N.; Gornjakovic, S.; Sarac, A. (2004). "Portal hypertensive gastropathy (PHG).". Med Arh 58 (6): 377-9. PMID 15648238.
  21. ↑ Thuluvath, PJ.; Yoo, HY. (Dec 2002). "Portal Hypertensive gastropathy.". Am J Gastroenterol 97 (12): 2973-8. doi:10.1111/j.1572-0241.2002.07094.x. PMID 12492178.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Sikanderkhel, S.; Luthra, M.; Chavalitdhamrong, D. (Jan 2012). "Snakeskin-like pattern mimicking portal hypertensive gastropathy in patient with eosinophilic gastritis.". Dig Endosc 24 (1): 53. doi:10.1111/j.1443-1661.2011.01155.x. PMID 22211417.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Iacobuzio-Donahue, Christine A.; Montgomery, Elizabeth A. (2005). Gastrointestinal and Liver Pathology: A Volume in the Foundations in Diagnostic Pathology Series (1st ed.). Churchill Livingstone. pp. 120-1. ISBN 978-0443066573.
  24. ↑ Lam, MC.; Tha, S.; Owen, D.; Haque, M.; Chatur, N.; Gray, JR.; Yoshida, EM. (Nov 2011). "Gastric polyps in patients with portal hypertension.". Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 23 (12): 1245-9. doi:10.1097/MEG.0b013e32834c15cf. PMID 22002002.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Kamata, T.; Suzuki, H.; Yoshinaga, S.; Nonaka, S.; Fukagawa, T.; Katai, H.; Taniguchi, H.; Kushima, R. et al. (2012). "Localized gastric amyloidosis differentiated histologically from scirrhous gastric cancer using endoscopic mucosal resection: a case report.". J Med Case Rep 6 (1): 231. doi:10.1186/1752-1947-6-231. PMC 3438062. PMID 22863214. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3438062/.
  26. ↑ Wu, D.; Lou, JY.; Chen, J.; Fei, L.; Liu, GJ.; Shi, XY.; Lin, HT. (Nov 2003). "A case report of localized gastric amyloidosis.". World J Gastroenterol 9 (11): 2632-4. PMID 14606114.
  27. ↑ Sawada, T.; Adachi, Y.; Akino, K.; Arimura, Y.; Ishida, T.; Ishii, Y.; Endo, T. (2012). "Endoscopic features of primary amyloidosis of the stomach.". Endoscopy 44 Suppl 2 UCTN: E275-6. doi:10.1055/s-0032-1309750. PMID 22814919.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Rugge, M.; Correa, P.; Dixon, MF.; Hattori, T.; Leandro, G.; Lewin, K.; Riddell, RH.; Sipponen, P. et al. (Feb 2000). "Gastric dysplasia: the Padova international classification.". Am J Surg Pathol 24 (2): 167-76. PMID 10680883.
  29. ↑ Park, do Y.; Lauwers, GY. (Apr 2008). "Gastric polyps: classification and management.". Arch Pathol Lab Med 132 (4): 633-40. doi:10.1043/1543-2165(2008)132[633:GPCAM]2.0.CO;2. PMID 18384215. http://www.archivesofpathology.org/doi/full/10.1043/1543-2165(2008)132%5B633:GPCAM%5D2.0.CO;2.
  30. ↑ URL: http://surgpathcriteria.stanford.edu/gitumors/gastric-adenoma/printable.html. Accessed on: 18 December 2012.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Kushima, R.; Kim, KM. (Sep 2011). "Interobserver Variation in the Diagnosis of Gastric Epithelial Dysplasia and Carcinoma between Two Pathologists in Japan and Korea.". J Gastric Cancer 11 (3): 141-5. doi:10.5230/jgc.2011.11.3.141. PMID 22076218.
  32. ↑ Correa, P.; Piazuelo, MB. (Jan 2012). "The gastric precancerous cascade.". J Dig Dis 13 (1): 2-9. doi:10.1111/j.1751-2980.2011.00550.x. PMID 22188910.
  33. ↑ URL: http://www.cap.org/apps/docs/committees/cancer/cancer_protocols/2011/StomachNET_11protocol.pdf. Accessed on: 29 March 2012.
  34. ↑ Mbulaiteye, SM.; Hisada, M.; El-Omar, EM. (2009). "Helicobacter Pylori associated global gastric cancer burden.". Front Biosci 14: 1490-504. PMID 19273142.
  35. ↑ Bailey, D. 6 August 2010.
  36. ↑ Papadaki, L.; Wotherspoon, AC.; Isaacson, PG. (Nov 1992). "The lymphoepithelial lesion of gastric low-grade B-cell lymphoma of mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT): an ultrastructural study.". Histopathology 21 (5): 415-21. PMID 1452124.
  37. ↑ Kim, K.; Kim, EJ.; Kim, MJ.; Song, HJ.; Lee, YS.; Jung, KW.; Yu, E. (Dec 2009). "Clinicopathological features of syphilitic gastritis in Korean patients.". Pathol Int 59 (12): 884-9. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1827.2009.02462.x. PMID 20021615.
  38. ↑ Long, BW.; Johnston, JH.; Wetzel, W.; Flowers, RH.; Haick, A. (Sep 1995). "Gastric syphilis: endoscopic and histological features mimicking lymphoma.". Am J Gastroenterol 90 (9): 1504-7. PMID 7661178.
  39. ↑ Zullo, A.; Hassan, C.; Andriani, A.; Cristofari, F.; De Francesco, V.; Ierardi, E.; Tomao, S.; Morini, S. et al. (Aug 2009). "Eradication therapy for Helicobacter pylori in patients with gastric MALT lymphoma: a pooled data analysis.". Am J Gastroenterol 104 (8): 1932-7; quiz 1938. doi:10.1038/ajg.2009.314. PMID 19532131.
  40. ↑ Sereno, M.; Aguayo, C.; Guillén Ponce, C.; Gómez-Raposo, C.; Zambrana, F.; Gómez-López, M.; Casado, E. (Sep 2011). "Gastric tumours in hereditary cancer syndromes: clinical features, molecular biology and strategies for prevention.". Clin Transl Oncol 13 (9): 599-610. PMID 21865131.
  41. ↑ Online 'Mendelian Inheritance in Man' (OMIM) 192090
  42. ↑ Guilford, P.; Hopkins, J.; Harraway, J.; McLeod, M.; McLeod, N.; Harawira, P.; Taite, H.; Scoular, R. et al. (Mar 1998). "E-cadherin germline mutations in familial gastric cancer.". Nature 392 (6674): 402-5. doi:10.1038/32918. PMID 9537325.
  43. ↑ Online 'Mendelian Inheritance in Man' (OMIM) 600185
  44. ↑ Duell, EJ.; Travier, N.; Lujan-Barroso, L.; Clavel-Chapelon, F.; Boutron-Ruault, MC.; Morois, S.; Palli, D.; Krogh, V. et al. (Nov 2011). "Alcohol consumption and gastric cancer risk in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) cohort.". Am J Clin Nutr 94 (5): 1266-75. doi:10.3945/ajcn.111.012351. PMID 21993435.
  45. ↑ Nomura, A.; Grove, JS.; Stemmermann, GN.; Severson, RK. (Nov 1990). "Cigarette smoking and stomach cancer.". Cancer Res 50 (21): 7084. PMID 2208177.
  46. ↑ LAUREN P (1965). "THE TWO HISTOLOGICAL MAIN TYPES OF GASTRIC CARCINOMA: DIFFUSE AND SO-CALLED INTESTINAL-TYPE CARCINOMA. AN ATTEMPT AT A HISTO-CLINICAL CLASSIFICATION". Acta Pathol Microbiol Scand 64: 31–49. PMID 14320675.
  47. ↑ Cotran, Ramzi S.; Kumar, Vinay; Fausto, Nelson; Nelso Fausto; Robbins, Stanley L.; Abbas, Abul K. (2005). Robbins and Cotran pathologic basis of disease (7th ed.). St. Louis, Mo: Elsevier Saunders. pp. 823. ISBN 0-7216-0187-1.
  48. ↑ Yamagawa, H.; Onishi, T. (Sep 1989). "[A clinicopathological study of early gastric cancers with a diameter larger than five centimeters].". Gan No Rinsho 35 (10): 1114-8. PMID 2550682.
  49. ↑ Zali, MR.; Moaven, O.; Asadzadeh Aghdaee, H.; Ghafarzadegan, K.; Ahmadi, KJ.; Farzadnia, M.; Arabi, A.; Abbaszadegan, MR. (Jul 2009). "Clinicopathological significance of E-cadherin, β-catenin and p53 expression in gastric adenocarinoma.". J Res Med Sci 14 (4): 239-47. PMID 21772890.
  50. ↑ Romiti, A.; Di Rocco, R.; Milione, M.; Ruco, L.; Ziparo, V.; Zullo, A.; Duranti, E.; Sarcina, I. et al. (Jan 2012). "Somatostatin receptor subtype 2 A (SSTR2A) and HER2 expression in gastric adenocarcinoma.". Anticancer Res 32 (1): 115-9. PMID 22213295.
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