Difference between revisions of "Breast pathology"

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m (→‎Collagenous spherulosis: tweak descript.)
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*Benign.
*Benign.
*Almost always an incidental finding.
*Almost always an incidental finding.
*Can mimic [[ADH]], [[DCIS]], [[adenoid cystic carcinoma]].<ref name=pmid16330938>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Resetkova | first1 = E. | last2 = Albarracin | first2 = C. | last3 = Sneige | first3 = N. | title = Collagenous spherulosis of breast: morphologic study of 59 cases and review of the literature. | journal = Am J Surg Pathol | volume = 30 | issue = 1 | pages = 20-7 | month = Jan | year = 2006 | doi =  | PMID = 16330938 }}</ref>
*Can mimic [[ADH]], cribriform [[DCIS]], [[adenoid cystic carcinoma]].<ref name=pmid16330938>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Resetkova | first1 = E. | last2 = Albarracin | first2 = C. | last3 = Sneige | first3 = N. | title = Collagenous spherulosis of breast: morphologic study of 59 cases and review of the literature. | journal = Am J Surg Pathol | volume = 30 | issue = 1 | pages = 20-7 | month = Jan | year = 2006 | doi =  | PMID = 16330938 }}</ref>
**Epidemiologically, it may be associated with [[LCIS]].<ref name=pmid16330938/>
**Epidemiologically, it may be associated with [[LCIS]].<ref name=pmid16330938/>



Revision as of 14:37, 16 November 2011

The breast is an important organ for the continuance of the species and one that pathologists see quite often because it is often afflicted by cancer. Before women started smoking in large numbers, it was the number one cause of cancer death in women (in Canada).

Fortunately, breast cancer, these days, has a relatively good prognosis if it is detected early... and this is why there are week-ends to end breast cancer -- there are large numbers of breast cancer survivors that are well, wealthy and can advocate for better care and research into breast cancer.

The world of pathology can neatly be divided into two... those that like the breast and those that don't.

Clinical

Classic presentation:

  • Nipple discharge.
  • Pain.
  • Breast lump/mass.
  • New nipple inversion.
  • Skin changes, e.g. peau d'orange.

Most common presentation:

  • Abnormal/suspicious screening mammogram - suspicious microcalcifications and/or suspicious mass.

Breast cancer screening

Breast cancer screening, for normal risk individuals, starts at age 50 in Canada. In the USA, breast screening starts at age 40.

Radiologic screening is less effective in younger individual as:

  1. The breast is more dense and thus radiologically more difficult to interpret, and
  2. The incidence of breast cancer is lower.

Breast radiology

BI-RADS = Breast Imaging Reporting And Data System[1]

  • 0: Incomplete - come back for more imaging (radiologist cha-ching).
  • 1: Negative.
  • 2: Benign finding(s).
  • 3: Probably benign -- often short follow-up.
  • 4: Suspicious abnormality -- needs biopsy.
  • 5: Highly suggestive of malignancy.
  • 6: Pathologist says there is a malignancy.

Specimens

Breast comes in three main flavours:

  1. Core needle biopsy (CNB).
  2. Lumpectomy.
  3. Radical mastectomy.

Lumpectomies are usually oriented with short and long suture; short is typically superior (aspect) and long is typically lateral (aspect).

Breast cytopathology is dealt with in the breast cytopathology article. It is almost dead, as it is not as sensitive and specific as CNB.

Work-up of CNBs is dependent on the clinical abnormality:[2]

  1. Mass lesion - usu. obvious what is going on; typically 3 levels.
  2. Calcifications - abnormality may be very small; typically 10 levels.

Normal

Resting

  • Glands -- normally has two cell layers (like the prostate).
    • Myoepithelial cells
      • Frequently spindle-like, often hard to see.
    • Secretory cells.
  • Stroma:
    • Not cellular.
    • Not myxoid.

May be present:

  • Calcification:
    • Purple globs (with concentric rings) on H&E = calcium phosphate.
      • Q. How to remember? A. Purple = Phosphate.
    • Calcium oxalate visible with (light) polarization - not assoc. with malignancy.
    • Often in the lumen of a gland, may be in the stroma.
    • Calcific material typically has a well-demarcated border +/- "sharp corners".
    • Radiologists can pick-up calcs (calcifications) that are approx. 100 micrometers; if "calcs" is on the requisition one needs to find calcs this size.[3]

Image:

Notes:

  • The architecture is more important than the cytologic features in the diagnosis of malignancy in the breast;[4] low grade tumours have distorted architecture but normal/near normal cytology.

Lactational changes

  • AKA secretory change, AKA lactational adenoma.[5]

General

  • May be present focally in non-pregnant females.

ASIDE:

  • Some believe one ought lactational change and secretory change aren't the same...
    • Lactationl change = only in lactation.
    • Secretory change = other times.
  • This hair splitting is clinically irrelevant-- both are benign. Also, experts use the terms interchangeably.[6]

Microscopic

Features:[7]

  • Glands dilated.
  • Increased number of lobules.
    • Relative decrease in intralobular and extralobular stroma.
  • Luminal cells enlarged.
    • Vacuolated cytoplasm.
    • Hobnail morphology - hang into the lumen.
  • Myoepithelial cells indistinct - after second trimester.

Images:

Where to start

The following entities are a starting point for understanding routine breast pathology & some of challenges in breast pathology:

  1. Apocrine change.
    • Pink benign cells.
  2. Columnar cell change.
    • Columnar cells with blebs ("snouts") - often have calcifications (purple).
  3. Fibroadenoma.
    • Abundant myxoid (light/blanched) stroma - very common.
  4. EHUT (epithelial hyperplasia of the usual type).
    • Too many cells in a duct, cells overlap & form slit-like spaces.
  5. DCIS (ductal carcinoma in situ).
    • Too many cells in a duct, nuclei do not touch - "cells are spaced".
    • Cells line-up around ovoid/circular spaces - "punch-out" appearance/"cookie cutter" look.
    • Myoepithelial cells present.
  6. Invasive ductal carcinoma.
    • Bread & butter cancer - in sheets or glands.
  7. Lobular carcinoma.
    • Dyscohesive cells - can easily be missed.
  8. Tubular carcinoma.
    • Glands have one cell layer... but near normal appearance.

The key to breast pathology is... seeing the two cell layers (at low power). The myoepithelial layer is hard to see at times and that is the challenge.

Common diagnoses - overview

  • Normal.
  • Benign.
    • Columnar cell change.
      • Calcification often in lumen.
  • Neoplastic.
    • Benign neoplastic:
    • Malignant neoplastic:
      • Epithelial/myoepithelial - most common, e.g. ductal carcinoma, lobular carcinoma.
      • Breast stroma - malignant phyllodes tumour.
      • Stromal, e.g. angiosarcoma - quite rare.

A tree diagram (overview)

General classifcation

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Breast pathology
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Stromal
pathology
 
 
 
 
Miscellaneous
 
 
 
 
Glandular
pathology
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Myxoid
 
 
 
Long slit-like
spaces
 
 
 
 
Simple
epithelium
 
Dilated
 
Cellular lesions
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Fibroadenoma
 
Malignant
features
 
Benign features
 
 
Tubular
carcinoma
 
FEA, FCC,
CCC
 
EHUT, Neoplastic,
Malignant
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Malignant
phyllodes
 
Benign phyllodes
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Notes:

  • The challenges in breast pathology are in: the Simple epithelium category and the Cellular lesions category.
  • Neoplastic includes: ADH and LDH.
  • Malignant includes: DCIS, LCIS, ductal carcinoma (DC) and lobular carcinoma (LC), some papillary lesions.
  • Lobular carcinoma (a pitfall) may appear to be a stromal problem, i.e. the stroma looks too cellular.
  • Miscellaneous includes rare tumours of the breast that do not fit into another category, i.e. metastases, lymphomas, melanoma, sarcomas. Skin-related pathology is dealt within the dermatologic neoplasms article. Paget disease of the breast, which may be seen in the context of malignant breast lesions, is discussed in its own article.

Cellular lesions

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Cellular lesions
(Glandular)
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Equal spacing,
punched-out
 
Streaming, periph.
slit-like spaces.
 
Discohesive cells,
expanded gl.
 
Single cells
or single file
 
Fibrovascular
cores
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Ductal lesion
 
EHUT
 
Lobular lesion
 
Lobular carcinoma
 
Papillary lesions
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Two cell layers
 
One cell layer
 
<50% of gl.
 
>50% of gl.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Ductal non-inv.
neoplasm
 
Ductal carcinoma
 
LDH
 
LCIS
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Large extent
 
Small extent
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
DCIS
 
ADH
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Notes:

  • The largest challenge is: differentiating between the first two categories on level 2, i.e. equal spacing...' vs. streaming....

Papillary lesions

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Papillary lesions
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Myoepithelial cells
present
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Myoepithelial cells
absent
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Unremarkable
papillae
 
 
 
 
 
Atypia or arch. abnorm.
or cellular proliferation
 
 
 
 
 
Neoplastic cells
present
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Benign
intraductal
papilloma
 
High grade atypia
 
Low grade atypia
or abnorm. arch.
 
Only cellular
proliferation
 
Intracystic
(encapsulated)
papillary ca.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
DCIS in
papilloma
 
 
 
 
 
 
EHUT in
papilloma
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
>3 mm extent
 
<3 mm extent
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
DCIS in
papilloma
 
ADH in
papilloma
 
 
 
 
 
 

Notes:

  • Adapted from Mulligan & O'Malley.[8]
  • The most important decision is the first one: myoepithelial cells present vs. absent.
  • abnorm. arch. = abnormal architecture present.
  • DCIS = ductal carcinoma in situ.
  • EHUT = epithelial hyperplasia of the usual type.
  • extent refers to the size of the abnormal cell population within the papillary lesion.

Malignant lesions

Non-invasive breast cancer

This includes the in situ lesions - DCIS and LCIS.

Invasive breast cancer

This is includes descriptions of the usual types... and the not so common ones.

Common benign lesions

The breast has lots of benign things. Unlike the prostate, the where benign is called benign, everything has a name. It is more common among breast pathologists to sign-out things like: apocrine metaplasia (benign), columnar cell change (benign), and epithelial hyperplasia of the usual type (EHUT) - instead of - benign breast tissue.

Apocrine metaplasia

General

  • Benign/not significant. Can be considered to be pretty wallpaper in the house of breast pathology.

Etiology

Microscopic

Features:

  • Eosinophilic cytoplasm - key feature.

Note:

  • Apocrine changes, i.e. cytoplasmic eosinophilia, can appear in malignant tumours; eosinophilia doesn't make something benign.
  • Apocrine snouts may be present. (???)
    • Small globules at the apical aspect of the cell (composed of cytoplasm and plasma membrane).

Image:

Fibrocystic change

  • Abbreviated FCC.
  • AKA fibrocystic changes.

General

  • Really common.
  • Benign.

Microscopic

Features:

  • Dilated glands - key change.
    • Glands normal: two cell layers present.
  • Often seen together with apocrine metaplasia.

Image:

Columnar cell change

Importance

  • Columnar cell change is associated with (benign) calcification - key point.

Microscopic

Features:

  • Secretory cells (line gland lumen) have columnar morphology.
  • May have "apical snouts".
    • Blebs or round balls eosinophilic material appear to be adjacent to the cell at their luminal surface.
    • The snouts are attached to the cell-- appear as round ball only in the plane of section. ?????
  • Cytoplasm +/-eosinophilic.

DDx:

Sclerosing adenosis

General

  • Can be scary... can look like ductal carcinoma.
  • Derived from sclerosing[9] (hardening) and adenosis (glandular enlargement).
    • Think scaring + lotsa glands and you're pretty close.

Microscopic

Features:

  • Acini are smaller than usual and there are more of them.
    • Acini often slit-like.
  • Fibrosis (scleroses) - pink on H&E surrounds the acini.

Notes:

  • The acini should:
    • Be in lobular arrangements, i.e. in groups (benign appearance at low power) - key feature.
    • Have two cell layers like well-behaved breast glands do.

DDx:

  • Low-grade ductal carcinoma.

Lesions with increased risk of malignancy

Flat epithelial atypia

General

Epidemiology:

  • Associated with ADH & DCIS; may represent a non-obligate precursor lesion of ADH & DCIS.[10]
  • Low risk of progression to invasive malignancy.[11]

Microscopic

Features:

  • "Flat" ~ three cells thick. (???)
  • Hypercellular gland -- several layers.
  • Columnar cell morphology.
  • +/-Apical snouts.

DDx:

Complex sclerosing lesion

  • AKA radial scar.

General

    • The term radial scar is a misnomer. It isn't a scar. It isn't associated with prior trauma or surgery.[12]
  • May appear malignant on imaging.[13]
  • Associated with subsequent elevated risk of breast cancer.[14]
  • Management - usu. surgical excision.[15]

Gross

  • Spiculated mass.
  • Usually small - 3-7 mm.

Image:

Microscopic

Features:[15][16]

  • Stellate appearance (low magnification).
  • Center of lesion has "fibroelastosis" - stroma light pink (on H&E) - key feature.
    • Scar like stroma with entrapped normal breast ducts and lobules.
    • Glands appear to enlarge with distance from center of lesion.

Image: Radial scar (breastpathology.info).

Notes:

  • Histomorphologic appearance may mimic a desmoplastic reaction of stroma - leading to a misdiagnosis of malignancy.
  • "Hyaline [pink stuff on H&E] is the key."[17]

Stromal lesions

This section (below) covers stromal lesions of the breast, which vary from benign to malignant. The most common is (the benign) fibroadenoma.

Non-breast stroma stromal lesions are covered in the soft tissue lesions article. Angiosarcoma (dealt with in the vascular tumours article) is the most common (non-breast stroma) sarcoma of the breast, and classically arises after treatment for a breast carcinoma.

Fibroadenoma

General

  • Very common benign finding.
  • The pathology is in the stroma; so, the lesion is really a misnomer by the naming rules.
    • It ought to be called adenofibroma (as a few occasionally do)[18], as the glandular component is benign and the stromal component lesional.

Management:

  • Local excision (without a large margin).

Microscopic

Features (fibroadenoma not otherwise specified):

  • Myxoid stroma -- most important feature.
    • Stroma is white/pale on H&E -- normal stroma is pink on H&E.
  • Compression of glandular elements -- commonly seen.

DDx:

  • Phyllodes tumour.
    • Stroma is more cellular than in fibroadenoma.
    • May have mitoses.
    • "Stromal overgrowth" large area where there is a 'loss of glands'.
    • Patients with phyllodes tumour are usually older than those with fibroadenoma.
  • Sarcoma.

Notes:

  1. There is stuff about intracanalicular vs. pericanalicular.[19] It is irrelevant; there is no prognostic difference between the two.
  2. Do not comment on the margin - it is irrelevant.

Phyllodes tumour vs. fibroadenoma

Histology of phyllodes:

  • More cellular.
  • More mitoses.
  • More nuclear pleomorphism.
  • Stromal overgrowth - epithelial elements absent in one low power field (x40).
  • Infiltrative borders.
  • Long/large slit-like spaces - key feature.
    • Small foci of long slit-like space may exist -- how much... no definition.

Epidemiology:

  • Phyllodes = older patients (usually)

Tx:

  • Wide excision for phyllodes vs. local excision for fibroadenoma.

Variants

Four variants are described:[20]

  1. Juvenile.
  2. Complex.
  3. Myxoid.
  4. Cellular.
Juvenile fibroadenoma
  • As the name suggests, is typically found in younger patients.
  • Classic history: rapid growth.

Features (juvenile variant):[21]

  • Stromal and epithelial hyperplasia - key feature.
  • Mitoses uncommon.
Myxoid fibroadenoma

Features:

  • Myxoid stroma.
Cellular fibroadenoma

Features (cellular variant):

  • Cellular.
  • Mitoses.
Complex fibroadenoma
  • Contain proliferative epithelium which outside and inside a fibroadenoma is associated with an increased risk of malignancy.

Features:[22]

  1. Apocrine metaplasia.
  2. Cysts > 3 mm.
  3. Calcification.
  4. Sclerosing adenosis.

Memory devices:

  • FACS: complex fibroadenoma, apocrine metaplasia, calcs & cysts, , sclerosing adenosis.
  • CAMS: calcs, apocrine metaplasia, microcysts, sclerosing adenosis.

Phyllodes tumour

The name comes from the word "leaf"; with imagination or psychotropic drugs, it may look like one (the epithelial component = the veins of the leaf).

General

  • Wide excision -- this differs from fibroadenoma (just local excision).
  • Approximately 6% are malignant.[23]

Gross

  • Clefts, leaf-like structures - friable vis-a-vis a fibroadenoma.

Microscopic

Features:

  • Large slit-like spaces.
  • Cellular stroma that may be myxoid.
  • +/-Mitoses.
  • May have "malignant border" -- "pushing border" / "infiltrative border".

Image:

Malignant phyllodes?

Features of malignancy:[24]

  • Stromal cellular atypia.
  • Mitotic activity in 10 HPFs.
    • "HPF" is not adequately defined - see HPFitis. The authors should be spanked.
  • Stromal overgrowth -- epithelial elements absent in one low power field (x40).[24]
    • "LPF" is not adequately defined - see LPFitis. The authors should be spanked.


A comparison between benign and malignant phyllodes - adapted from Taira et al.[24]

Benign Malignant
Stromal overgrowth no yes
Mitoses >4/10 HPF >=10/10 HPF
Atypia of stromal cells <= moderate marked

See also: Phyllodes tumour vs. fibroadenoma.

Pseudoangiomatous stromal hyperplasia

  • Abbreviated PASH.
  • AKA nodular myofibroblastic stromal hyperplasia of the mammary gland.[25]

General

  • Benign lesion.
  • Thought to arise due to myofibroblast abnormality - though not well understood.[26]

Gross

Features:[26]

  • May form mass: grey-white & firm, with well circumscribed borders.

Microscopic

Features:[27][28]

  • Abundant breast stromal.
  • Small, complex, inter-anastomosing (blood vessel/capillary-like) channels - key feature.
    • Pseudoangiomatous = blood vessel-like.

Notes:

  • May mimic angiosarcoma at low power; PASH may have the same architecture but lack nuclear atypia.

Images:

IHC

Findings:[26]

  • CD34 +ve.
  • Vimentin +ve.
  • Factor VIII -ve.

Weird stuff

Like in all niches of pathology... there is weird stuff.

Mammary hamartoma

General

Gross

  • Well-circumscribed - key feature.

Microscopic

Features:[29]

  • Disordered arrangement of ductal and lobular structures.
  • Normal arrangement of cells with in the ductal structures, i.e. myoepithelium and epithelium present.
  • Variable features:[30]
    1. Adipose tissue - predominant.
    2. Dense fibrosis tissue - predominant.
    3. Cystic glandular dilation.

Notes:

  • If adipose tissue predominates; it may be labeled adenolipoma.[30]

DDx:

Image:

IHC

  • None - it's a H&E diagnosis.

Collagenous spherulosis

General

Microscopic

Features:[31][33]

  • Tubular/cribriform architecture.
  • Intratubular eosinophilic material - key feature.
    • Classical: Arranged like the spokes of a wheel ("radial spikes").
    • Atypical: Granules ~ 1-2 micrometers.
  • No mitotic activity.
  • Two cells populations (epithelial & myoepithelial) - like a well-behaved breast gland.

Notes:

  • Usually small lesions: < 50 spherules per lesion, <100 micrometers.
  • May be multifocal.
  • +/-Calcifications - may prompt biopsy.

Images:

Nipple adenoma

  • AKA nipple duct adenoma, nipple adenoma of breast, adenoma of the nipple.

General

  • Rare.

Clinical DDx:

Microscopic

Features:

  • Proliferation of epithelial and myoepithelial elements that extends into the breast stroma.[35]

Notes:

  • Not encapsulated.[35]
  • Lacks true fibrovascular cores.[36]

DDx:

Images:

Intraductal papilloma

General

Microscopic

Features:

  • True papillae - nipple-shaped structures with fibrovascular cores.
  • Intraductal proliferation of epithelial and myoepithelial elements.[35]

Notes:

  • Lacks florid hyperplasia.[38]
  • May degeneration and hyalinize to form a sclerosing papilloma.

Images:

Diabetic mastopathy

General

  • Diabetes mellitus.

Microscopic

Features:[39]

  • Stromal collagen with keloid-like changes.
  • Lymphocytic infiltrates:
    • Lobules.
    • Perivascular.
  • Enlarged stromal fibroblasts.

Microglandular adenosis

General

  • Controversial thingy.

Microscopic

Features:[40]

  • Round glands lined by a single layer of cells.
  • May extend into fat.

DDx:

  • Tubular carcinoma - has apical snouts, desmoplasia among other things; see page by Collins.[40]
  • Sclerosing adenosis.

Image:

IHC

Features:[41]

  • S100 +ve.
  • 34BE12 +ve -- focal!

Adenomyoepithelioma

General

  • Rare lesion consisting of epithelial and myoepithelial elements.
    • May occur in other sites, e.g. tonsil.[42]
  • May be benign or malignant.[43][44]

Note:

Microscopic

Features:[46]

  • Well-circumscribed.
  • Glandular architecture with:
    • Easily identifiable myoepithelial cells - with clear cytoplasm - key feature.
    • Eosinophilic cuboidal epithelial cells.
  • Eosinophilic basement membrane material between glands.

DDx:

  • Invasive ductal carcinoma (on core biopsy).
  • Mammary pleomorphic adenoma.
  • Ductal adenoma.

Images:

See also

References

  1. URL: http://breastcancer.about.com/od/diagnosis/a/birads.htm. Accessed on: 16 March 2011.
  2. MUA. 1 October 2010.
  3. MUA. 1 October 2010.
  4. RS. 4 May 2010.
  5. URL: [Breast_pathology#Lactational_changes Breast_pathology#Lactational_changes. Accessed on: 3 October 2011.
  6. Tavassoli, FA.; Yeh, IT. (Jan 1987). "Lactational and clear cell changes of the breast in nonlactating, nonpregnant women.". Am J Clin Pathol 87 (1): 23-9. PMID 2879437.
  7. URL: http://flylib.com/books/en/2.953.1.9/1/. Accessed on: 6 August 2011.
  8. Mulligan AM, O'Malley FP (March 2007). "Papillary lesions of the breast: a review". Adv Anat Pathol 14 (2): 108–19. doi:10.1097/PAP.0b013e318032508d. PMID 17471117.
  9. URL: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/sclerosis. Accessed on: 16 March 2011.
  10. Lerwill, MF. (Apr 2008). "Flat epithelial atypia of the breast.". Arch Pathol Lab Med 132 (4): 615-21. doi:10.1043/1543-2165(2008)132[615:FEAOTB]2.0.CO;2. PMID 18384213.
  11. Schnitt, SJ. (2003). "The diagnosis and management of pre-invasive breast disease: flat epithelial atypia--classification, pathologic features and clinical significance.". Breast Cancer Res 5 (5): 263-8. doi:10.1186/bcr625. PMID 12927037.
  12. Kumar, Vinay; Abbas, Abul K.; Fausto, Nelson; Aster, Jon (2009). Robbins and Cotran pathologic basis of disease (8th ed.). Elsevier Saunders. pp. 1072. ISBN 978-1416031215.
  13. Ung OA, Lee WB, Greenberg ML, Bilous M (January 2001). "Complex sclerosing lesion: the lesion is complex, the management is straightforward". ANZ J Surg 71 (1): 35–40. PMID 11167596.
  14. URL: http://www.cancer.org/docroot/NWS/content/NWS_1_1x_Radial_Scars.asp. Accessed on: 4 May 2010.
  15. 15.0 15.1 Kennedy M, Masterson AV, Kerin M, Flanagan F (October 2003). "Pathology and clinical relevance of radial scars: a review". J. Clin. Pathol. 56 (10): 721–4. PMC 1770086. PMID 14514771. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1770086/.
  16. O'Malley, Frances P.; Pinder, Sarah E. (2006). Breast Pathology: A Volume in Foundations in Diagnostic Pathology series (1st ed.). Churchill Livingstone. pp. 91. ISBN 978-0443066801.
  17. RS. May 2010.
  18. Guinebretière, JM.; Menet, E.; Tardivon, A.; Cherel, P.; Vanel, D. (Apr 2005). "Normal and pathological breast, the histological basis.". Eur J Radiol 54 (1): 6-14. doi:10.1016/j.ejrad.2004.11.020. PMID 15797289.
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