Medical liver disease

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This article deals with medical liver disease. An introduction to the liver and approach is found in the liver article.

Micrograph showing ground glass hepatocytes, as seen in chronic hepatitis B. H&E stain.

Every differential in liver pathology has "drugs"[1] -- if it isn't clearly malignancy.

Liver neoplasms are dealt with in the liver neoplasms article.

Medical liver biopsies are often non-specific, as the liver has the same appearance for many mechanisms of injury, especially when the injury is marked. The clinical history, serology and imaging are essential for proper interpretations in this domain of pathology.

Review of liver blood work

Inflammation activity

  • ALT.
  • AST.

Cholestatic markers

  • ALP.
  • GGT - used to assess whether the ALP is an "honest" value, elevated in cirrhosis.

Cirrhosis/decompensation

  • PLT - low is suggestive of dysfunction.
  • INR - high is bad, unless anticoagulated.

Other

  • Bilirubin.
    • Direct (AKA conjugated).
    • Indirect (AKA unconjugated).

A short DDx of elevated:[2]

  • Indirect:
    • Gilbert syndrome.
    • Crigler-Najjar syndrome type 1.
    • Crigler-Najjar syndrome type 2.
  • Direct:
    • Rotor syndrome.
    • Dubin-Johnson syndomre.

Viral hepatitis

  • HBV DNA.
  • HCV RNA.
  • HBs Ag, HBs Ab, HBe Ag, HBe Ab.
  • HCV Ab.

Others:

Hepatitis B

Meaning & utility of the various Hepatitis B tests:[3][4]

Test name Location Positive test Negative test Usual question
HBs Ag Surface Virus active No active infection Active infection?
HBs Ab Surface Exposed OR vaccinated No exposure OR no vaccine OR loss of Ab Immunization status?
HBe Ag Virus core Infect. w/ viral replication No active infection Active infect. w/ viral replication?
HBe Ab Virus core Exposed to virus Infect. w/o antibody response OR not exposed Immune response to infection?
HBV DNA - Active Not active/no exposure Viral load/how active?
HBc Ab Virus core Virus active/previous exposure No exposure Early active infection?

Notes:

  • HBc Ab may test for acute (IgM) or chronic infection - dependent on specific antibody test; it is often used to look for early infection.[4]
  • Carriers of hepatitis B: HBs Ag +ve, HBs Ab -ve, HBc Ag -ve, HBc Ab +ve, HBe Ag -ve, HBe Ab +ve.[5]

Markers for rare liver diseases

  • Ceruloplasm - low think Wilson's disease; typical value for Wilson's ~ 0.12 g/L.
    • <0.20 g/L is a criteria for Wilson's disease.[6]
  • Alpha-1 antitrypsin - if low think deficiency.

Hemosiderosis

  • Ferritin - high.
  • Iron saturation - high.

Causes:

  • Hemochromatosis.
  • Hemolysis, chronic.
  • Cirrhosis.

Medical imaging

Blood flow:[7]

  • Hepatopedal flow = normal portal vein flow.
  • Hepatofugal flow = reversed portal vein flow.

Interventional measurements

Wedged to free hepatic venous pressure:[8]

Liver biopsy

Medical liver biopsy adequacy

Liver biopsy specimens should be:[9]

  • 2.0 cm in length and contain 11-15 portal tracts,
  • The core should be deeper than 1.0 cm from the liver capsule; specimens close to the capsule may lead to over grading of fibrosis.

Reporting

Main article: Pathology reports
Specimen, procedure:
- Diagnosis.

The diagnosis usually contains grading and staging information, e.g. activity 2 /4, Laennec fibrosis stage 1 /4.

In the context of medical liver disease:

  • Grade = inflammation/activity.
  • Stage = severity of fibrosis/architectural changes.

Notes:

  • The term "acute" is infrequently used in liver pathology.
  • In the liver: neutrophils is not acute -- unlike most elsewhere in the body.[10]

A microscopic checklist

Size of biopsy: Adequate
Fragmentation: Absent
Fibrosis: Stage 2-3/4, mostly stage 2
Fibrous septa: Present
Septa with curved contours: Present – focally only
Large droplet steatosis (% of hepatocytes): Present, moderate 60%
Ballooning of hepatocytes: Present, rare
Mallory-Denk bodies: Present, rare
Portal inflammation: Present
Interface activity: Minimal (0-1/4)
Lobular necroinflammation: Minimal
Ducts: Present in normal numbers
Duct injury: Absent
Ductular reaction: Absent
Cholestasis: Absent
Terminal hepatic venules: Present
Iron stain: Absent
Ground glass cells with routine stains: Absent
PASD for alpha-1 antitrypsin droplets: Negative

Viral hepatitis

These are common. The diagnoses are based on serology. The serology is covered in the viral hepatitis section in the liver pathology article.

Typically classified as:[11][12]

  1. Acute < 6 months duration.
  2. Chronic > 6 months duration.

Hepatitis A

  • Infection is self-limited, i.e. not persistent.
  • Usually asymptomatic in children.[13]
  • Serology is diagnostic.

Hepatitis B

Hepatitis B virus, abbreviated HBV, redirects here.
Main article: Hepatitis B

Hepatitis C

General

  • Leads to hepatocellular carcinoma in the setting of cirrhosis.
  • Tends to be chronic; the "C" in "hepatitis C" stands for chronic.
  • Diagnosis is by serology.

Associated pathology:

Microscopic

Features:

  • Lobular inflammation - this is non-specific finding.
    • Usually Grade 1, rarely Grade 2 and almost never Grade 3 or Grade 4.[14]
  • Periportal steatosis in genotype 3.[15]
    • Steatosis in hepatitis C is usually a secondary pathology, i.e. a separate pathologic process.[16]

Images

 
Hepatitis C case for Libre Pathology
 Metavir activity index 1 (Piecemeal necrosis 0-1, Lobular necrosis 1), Metavir fibrosis stage 2. Hepatitis C genotype 1a. Expanded, dark triads (UL blue arrowhead). Focus of spotty necrosis (UR green arrowhead). Reticulin shows occasional, equivocal foci of piecemeal necrosis, with a thin black line possibly encircling a hepatocytes (LL yellow arrowhead); the activity index is unaffected by the difference in piecemeal necrosis score. Trichrome shows portal fibrosis with extension outside area of blood vessels (LR purple arrowhead) Original oculars UL 2X, UR 20X, LL 40X, LR 40X
 
Hepatits C case for Libre Pathology
 Metavir activity index 2 (Piecemeal necrosis 2, Lobular necrosis 1). Hepatitis C genotype 3a. Steatosis, not pan-acinar and dark, expanded triads(UL) with the inset showing a Councilman body. Reticulin collapse, not portal-central (UR green arrowhead). Reticulin with more than focal piecemeal necrosis in some triads/tracts (LL magenta arrowheads) Trichrome stain of a tract (the entire structure may be a large bridge) with thinner bridges (LR cyan arrowheads).

Original oculars. UL 4X (inset 40X with higher magnification), UR 20X, LL 40X, LR 10X

 
Metavir stage 4 fibrosis in patient with HCV, for Libre Pathology
 Metavir activity index 3 (Piecemeal necrosis 2, Lobular necrosis 2), Metavir fibrosis stage 4. Hepatitis C genotype 1a. Inflamed bands separate hepatocyte regions distorted by steatosis (UL). Bordering tract and acini (UR) lymphocytes, macrophages, eosinophils, and rare neutrophils (black arrowhead) invest both proliferated bile ducts (yellow arrowheads) and hepatocytes, some showing ballooning degeneration (green arrowhead). Reticulin shows hepatocyte cords often two nuclei thick bounded by directionless sinusoids, consistent with a regenerative nodule (LL). Trichrome shows extensive bridging with a potential flattened nodule; although a debate about the presence or absence of definite fibrosis would have existed, with the Metavir scoring system, this is considered fibrosis stage 4 (LR).

Original oculars UL 4X, UR 40X, LL 20X, LR 10X


DDx:

Other infections

  • Hydatid disease (Hydatid cyst).
  • Ascaris.
  • Fasciola

Hydatid disease

  • AKA hydatid cyst.

General

Microscopic

Features:

Images

  • Liver cyst wall - intermed. mag. (WC)

  • Liver cyst wall - high mag. (WC)

  • Characteristic laminated portion - intermed. mag. (WC)

  • Characteristic laminated portion - high mag. (WC)

www:

Coccidiomycosis

Coccidiomycosis Table show GRAN-COC

    

Note the granulomas in otherwise undisturbed liver (UL), the larger prior granuloma with centrally crowded cells & lady slipper macrophage nuclei (UR), the center of the granuloma with pyknotic macrophage nuclei "necrotizing" (LL), and the organisms on GMS stain (LR).

Metabolic and toxic

Alcoholic liver disease

General

Classic lab findings in EtOH abusers

  • AST & ALT elevated with AST:ALT=2:1.
  • GGT elevated.
  • MCV increased.

Gross pathology/radiologic findings

  • Classically micronodular pattern.
    • May be macronodular.

Microscopic

See:

Features:

  • Often zone III damage.
  • Cholestatsis common, i.e. yellow staining.
    • NASH (non-alcoholic steatohepatitis) usu. does not have cholestasis.[20]
  • Fibrosis starts at central veins.
  • Neutrophils (often helpful) -- few other things have PMNs. (???)
    • Neutrophils cluster around cells with Mallory hyaline.

Images

 
Cirrhosis in a patient with a history of alcohol abuse
 Cirrhosis in a person with alcohol abuse. At low power bands separate hepatocyte regions (UL). Higher power at left shows isles of hepatocytes, some ballooned; at right, hepatocytes with many lumens, at lower power perhaps suggesting steatosis, here evidencing regeneration (UL). Focus of spotty necrosis (UR). PAS-D stain showing extensive benign bile duct proliferation, overall localized, with red rimd (LL). Trichrome shows fibrosis about nodules (LR).

Original oculars UL 4X, UR 20X, LL 40X, LR 10X

    

Alcoholic hepatitis without cirrhosis. No history of viral disease. AMA negative. Expanded, inflamed triads with increased bile duct/vascular openings. Mild steatosis (UL 40X). Trichrome stain shows periportal fibrosis [red arrowheads] (UR 200X). PAS with diastase stain shows proliferated bile ductules [blue arrowheads] in stroma with mixed inflammatory infiltrate (LL 400X) Neutrophils about ballooned hepatocyte (satellitosis) [yellow arrowheads]. Councilman bodies [green arrowheads] (LR 400X).

Notes:

  • If portal inflammatory infiltrates more than mild, r/o other causes i.e. viral hepatitis.
  • Mallory bodies once thought to be characteristic; now considered non-specific and generally poorly understood.[21]
  • Some consider alcoholic liver disease a clinical diagnosis, i.e. as a pathologist one does not diagnose it.[22]

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease

  • Abbreviated NAFLD.
  • Fatty liver that is not due to alcohol; includes obesity-related fatty liver, metabolic disease/diabetes-related fatty liver.

NASH

  • Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis - see steatohepatitis section.
  • Histologically indistinguishable from ASH.
  • NASH is a clinical diagnosis based on exclusion of alcohol.

Steatohepatitis

Main article: Steatohepatitis

Autoimmune

Autoimmune hepatitis

  • Abbreviated AIH.
Main article: Autoimmune hepatitis

Primary biliary cirrhosis

  • Abbreviated PBC.
Main article: Primary biliary cirrhosis

Autoimmune hepatitis-primary biliary cirrhosis overlap syndrome

  • Abbreviation AIH-PBC OS.

General

Epidemiology:

  • Rare.

Serology:[23]

  • AMA +ve.
  • Anti-dsDNA +ve.

Microscopic

See: autoimmune hepatitis and primary biliary cirrhosis.

Primary sclerosing cholangitis

  • Abbreviated PSC.
Main article: Primary sclerosing cholangitis

Hereditary

Caroli disease

General

Clinical:[26]

Note:

  • Caroli syndrome = Caroli disease + congenital hepatic fibrosis.[29]

Gross

  • Dilated bile ducts.[24]

Microscopic

Features:[26]

  • Dilated bile ducts.
  • Periductal fibrosis. (???)
  • +/-Fibrosis.

Image:

Hereditary hemochromatosis

For secondary causes see secondary hemochromatosis.
Main article: Hereditary hemochromatosis

Wilson disease

Main article: Wilson's disease

Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency

  • AKA alpha1-antiprotease inhibitor deficiency.
Main article: Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency

Other

Budd-Chiari syndrome

  • AKA hepatic vein obstruction.

General

  • Hepatic outflow obstruction.

Clinical triad:[31]

  • Ascites.
  • Abdominal pain.
  • Hepatomegaly.

Etiology:

Clinical DDx:

Microscopic

Features:[33]

  • Sinusoidal dilation in zone III (congestion).
  • +/-Hepatocyte drop-out.
  • +/-Centrilobular fibrosis.

DDx congestion:

Vanishing bile duct syndrome

General

  • Fatal.

DDx:[35]

Microscopic

Features:[35]

  • Loss of intrahepatitic bile ducts - key feature.
  • Cholestasis.

Note:

  • May occur without fibrosis and inflammation; thus, can be easy to miss.

IHC

  • CK7 -ve.
    • Marks bile ducts.

Extrahepatic biliary obstruction

    

Changes of extrahepatic biliary obstruction, months duration. Expanded inflamed portal triads, swollen hepatocytes (UL 40X). Edematous stroma, proliferating ductules [yellow arrowheads], PAS-D macrophages [red arrowhead] (UR PAS with diastasse, 200X). Disordered, often swollen hepatocytes,some with feathery degeneration (net like spaces in cytoplasm) [blue arrowhead], rare Councilman body [green arrowhead] (LL 400X). Bile in hepatocytes [cyan arrrowhead] & in canaliculi [purple arrowheads]. Empty acinar spaces bounded by hepatocytes [orange arrowhead] (LR 400X).


Congestive hepatopathy

General

  • Liver failure due to (right) heart failure.
  • AKA cardiac cirrhosis - a term used by clinicians.
    • Generally, it does not satisfy pathologic criteria for cirrhosis.[38]

Gross

  • "Nutmeg" liver - yellow spotted appearance.

Microscopic

Features:[39]

  • Zone III atrophy.
  • Portal venule (central vein) distension.
  • Perisinusoidal fibrosis - progresses to centrilobular fibrosis and then diffuse fibrosis.
  • Dilation of sinusoids in all zone III areas - key feature.[40]

DDx:

Images

  • Mild congestive hepatopathy. (WC)

Drug-induced liver disease

  • AKA drug-induced liver toxicity.
Main article: Drug-induced liver disease

Focal nodular hyperplasia

  • Abbreviated FNH.
Main article: Focal nodular hyperplasia

Nodular regenerative hyperplasia

General

Etiology

  • Arterial hypervascularity secondary to loss of hepatic vein radicles (loss of central venule in hepatic lobule).[41]

ASIDE: radicle = ramulus - smallest branch or vessel or nerve.[43]

Gross

  • Diffuse nodularity - whole liver.

Microscopic

Features:[41]

  • "Plump" hepatocytes surrounded by atrophic ones.
  • No fibrosis.

Sinuosoidal obstruction syndrome

  • May be referred to as Hepatic veno-occlusive disease.[44]

General

  • Term for obstruction due to toxicity from a chemotherapeutic agent.[45][33]

Clinical DDx:

Microscopic

Features:[33]

  • Subendothelial swelling in hepatic venules.

Negatives:

  • No thrombosis.

Ascending Cholangitis

General

  • Term for infection of bile ducts, usually due to obstruction

Clinical DDx:


Microscopic

Images

 
Ascending cholangitis case for Libre Pathology
 Ascending cholangitis. Edematous triads, leukocyte speckled (UL), are expanded amid relatively undisturbed hepatocytes. Neutrophils lie within epithelium of proliferated bile ducts (UR). LL Acute inflammation spills out from some triads into the acini (LL). PAS with diastase stain (LR) better shows bile duct damage, with partial loss of the red line surrounding ducts & disorder of nuclei, as well as highlighting intra-epithelial neutrophils.

Original oculars. UL 4X, UR 40X, LL 40X, LR 40X

Polycystic kidney disease and the liver

Main article: Cystic kidney disease

General

Complications of PKD in the liver:[46]

  1. Infected cyst.
  2. Cholangiocarcinoma.
  3. Cholestasis/obstruction due to duct compression.[47]

Cysts:

  • Cysts in the liver, like the kidney, are thought to enlarge with age.

Microscopic

Features:[48]

  • Von Meyenburg complexes (bile duct hamartoma):
    • Cluster of dilated ducts with "altered" bile.
    • Surrounded by collagenous stroma.
    • Separate from the portal areas.[49]

Images:

Notes:

  • Appearance on ultrasound[50] and CT (hypodense)[51] - similar to metastases.

Peliosis hepatis

General

  • Associated with:
    • Infections.
    • Malignancy.
    • Other stuff.
  • Rarely biopsied.

Microscopic

Features:

  • Cyst lined by endothelium.
    • Usu. incomplete.
  • Blood.

Total parenteral nutrition

  • Abbreviated TPN.

General

  • Indication: short gut syndrome, others.

Microscopic

Variable - may range from: steatosis, steatohepatitis, cholestasis, fibrosis and cirrhosis.[52]

Features (classic):[53][54]

  • Steatosis (periportal) - early.
  • Cholestasis - late.

Giant cell hepatitis

  • AKA neonatal giant cell hepatitis.
See: Giant cell hepatitis.

Hepatic amyloidosis

Main article: Amyloidosis
  • AKA liver amyloidosis.
  • AKA amyloidosis of the liver.

General

Microscopic

Features:

  • Amorphous extracellular pink stuff on H&E - see amyloid article.

DDx:

Images

  • Amyloidosis of the liver - low mag. (WC)

  • Amyloidosis of the liver - intermed. mag. (WC)

  • Amyloidosis of the liver - high mag. (WC)

  • Amyloidosis of the liver - very high mag. (WC)

    

Amyloidosis. Amorphous material replaces hepatic parenchyma [UL 4X]. Material barely stains blue on trichrome [UR 10X] Material stains red on unpolarized Congo Red [LL 40X] Material stains apple green on polarized Congo Red [LR 40X]

Stains

Fulminant hepatic necrosis

General

Etiology:

Microscopic

Features:

  • Hepatocyte necrosis.
  • Bile duct proliferation.

DDx:

Secondary hemochromatosis

For the hereditary one see hereditary hemochromatosis.

General

  • Iron overload secondary to blood transfusions for hereditary or acquired anemia.[55]
  • Imaging considered the best test, as iron deposition is patchy.[55]

Selected hereditary causes:[55]

Selected acquired causes:[55]

Microscopic

See hereditary hemochromatosis.

Hepatic sarcoidosis

Main article: Hepatic sarcoidosis

See also

References

  1. ↑ Mitchell, Richard; Kumar, Vinay; Fausto, Nelson; Abbas, Abul K.; Aster, Jon (2011). Pocket Companion to Robbins & Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease (8th ed.). Elsevier Saunders. pp. 448. ISBN 978-1416054542.
  2. ↑ Mitchell, Richard; Kumar, Vinay; Fausto, Nelson; Abbas, Abul K.; Aster, Jon (2011). Pocket Companion to Robbins & Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease (8th ed.). Elsevier Saunders. pp. 441. ISBN 978-1416054542.
  3. ↑ URL: http://www.clevelandclinicmeded.com/medicalpubs/diseasemanagement/hepatology/hepatitis-B/. Accessed on: 16 May 2011.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 URL: http://www.labtestsonline.org/understanding/analytes/hepatitis_b/test.html. Accessed on: 16 May 2011.
  5. ↑ URL: http://labtestsonline.org/understanding/analytes/hepatitis-b/tab/test. Accessed on: 3 May 2012.
  6. ↑ Diagnostic accuracy of serum ceruloplasmin in Wilson disease: determination of sensitivity and specificity by ROC curve analysis among ATP7B-genotyped subjects. Mak CM, Lam CW, Tam S. Clin Chem. 2008 Aug;54(8):1356-62. Epub 2008 Jun 12. PMID 18556333. URL: http://www.clinchem.org/cgi/reprint/54/8/1356.pdf. Accessed on: 28 September 2009.
  7. ↑ URL: http://insidesurgery.com/2010/12/hepatopedal-hepatofugal-flow/. Accessed on: 2 December 2011.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Bion, E.; Brenard, R.; Pariente, EA.; Lebrec, D.; Degott, C.; Maitre, F.; Benhamou, JP. (Feb 1991). "Sinusoidal portal hypertension in hepatic amyloidosis.". Gut 32 (2): 227-30. PMC 1378815. PMID 1864548. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1378815/.
  9. ↑ Burt, Alastair D.;Portmann, Bernard C.;Ferrell, Linda D. (2006). MacSween's Pathology of the Liver (5th ed.). Churchill Livingstone. pp. 418. ISBN 978-0-443-10012-3.
  10. ↑ OA. September 2009.
  11. ↑ "Terminology of chronic hepatitis, hepatic allograft rejection, and nodular lesions of the liver: summary of recommendations developed by an international working party, supported by the World Congresses of Gastroenterology, Los Angeles, 1994.". Am J Gastroenterol 89 (8 Suppl): S177-81. Aug 1994. PMID 8048409.
  12. ↑ URL: http://familydoctor.org/familydoctor/en/diseases-conditions/hepatitis-b.html. Accessed on: 2 May 2012.
  13. ↑ Jeong SH, Lee HS (2010). "Hepatitis A: clinical manifestations and management". Intervirology 53 (1): 15–9. doi:10.1159/000252779. PMID 20068336.
  14. ↑ STC. 6 December 2010.
  15. ↑ Yoon EJ, Hu KQ. Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection and hepatic steatosis. Int J Med Sci. 2006;3(2):53-6. Epub 2006 Apr 1. PMID 16614743. Avialable at: http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1415843. Accessed on: September 9, 2009.
  16. ↑ OA. September 2009.
  17. ↑ Mitchell, Richard; Kumar, Vinay; Fausto, Nelson; Abbas, Abul K.; Aster, Jon (2011). Pocket Companion to Robbins & Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease (8th ed.). Elsevier Saunders. pp. 448. ISBN 978-1416054542.
  18. ↑ URL: http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/170539-overview. Accessed on: 3 May 2012.
  19. ↑ STC. 6 December 2010.
  20. ↑ STC. 6 December 2010.
  21. ↑ Jensen K, Gluud C (November 1994). "The Mallory body: theories on development and pathological significance (Part 2 of a literature survey)". Hepatology 20 (5): 1330-42. PMID 7927269.
  22. ↑ MG. September 2009.
  23. ↑ Muratori, P.; Granito, A.; Pappas, G.; Pendino, GM.; Quarneti, C.; Cicola, R.; Menichella, R.; Ferri, S. et al. (Jun 2009). "The serological profile of the autoimmune hepatitis/primary biliary cirrhosis overlap syndrome.". Am J Gastroenterol 104 (6): 1420-5. doi:10.1038/ajg.2009.126. PMID 19491855.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Online 'Mendelian Inheritance in Man' (OMIM) 263200
  25. ↑ Online 'Mendelian Inheritance in Man' (OMIM) 600643
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Yonem, O.; Bayraktar, Y. (Apr 2007). "Clinical characteristics of Caroli's syndrome.". World J Gastroenterol 13 (13): 1934-7. PMID 17461493.
  27. ↑ Yonem, O.; Bayraktar, Y. (Apr 2007). "Clinical characteristics of Caroli's disease.". World J Gastroenterol 13 (13): 1930-3. PMID 17461492.
  28. ↑ Karim, AS. (Aug 2004). "Caroli's disease.". Indian Pediatr 41 (8): 848-50. PMID 15347876.
  29. ↑ Brancatelli, G.; Federle, MP.; Vilgrain, V.; Vullierme, MP.; Marin, D.; Lagalla, R.. "Fibropolycystic liver disease: CT and MR imaging findings.". Radiographics 25 (3): 659-70. doi:10.1148/rg.253045114. PMID 15888616.
  30. ↑ URL: http://www.meddean.luc.edu/lumen/MedEd/orfpath/develop.htm. Accessed on: 1 December 2011.
  31. ↑ Fox, MA.; Fox, JA.; Davies, MH. (2011). "Budd-Chiari syndrome--a review of the diagnosis and management.". Acute Med 10 (1): 5-9. PMID 21573256.
  32. ↑ Plessier, A.; Valla, DC. (Aug 2008). "Budd-Chiari syndrome.". Semin Liver Dis 28 (3): 259-69. doi:10.1055/s-0028-1085094. PMID 18814079.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 Aydinli, M.; Bayraktar, Y. (May 2007). "Budd-Chiari syndrome: etiology, pathogenesis and diagnosis.". World J Gastroenterol 13 (19): 2693-6. PMID 17569137. http://www.wjgnet.com/1007-9327/full/v13/i19/2693.htm.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Inomata, Y.; Tanaka, K. (2001). "Pathogenesis and treatment of bile duct loss after liver transplantation.". J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Surg 8 (4): 316-22. doi:10.1007/s0053410080316. PMID 11521176.
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Reau, NS.; Jensen, DM. (Feb 2008). "Vanishing bile duct syndrome.". Clin Liver Dis 12 (1): 203-17, x. doi:10.1016/j.cld.2007.11.007. PMID 18242505.
  36. ↑ Yeh, KH.; Hsieh, HC.; Tang, JL.; Lin, MT.; Yang, CH.; Chen, YC. (Aug 1994). "Severe isolated acute hepatic graft-versus-host disease with vanishing bile duct syndrome.". Bone Marrow Transplant 14 (2): 319-21. PMID 7994249.
  37. ↑ Chitturi, S.; Farrell, GC. (Apr 2001). "Drug-induced cholestasis.". Semin Gastrointest Dis 12 (2): 113-24. PMID 11352118.
  38. ↑ URL: http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/151792-overview. Accessed on: 17 June 2010.
  39. ↑ URL: http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/151792-diagnosis. Accessed on: 17 June 2010.
  40. ↑ Suggested by OA. September 2009.
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 Cotran, Ramzi S.; Kumar, Vinay; Fausto, Nelson; Nelso Fausto; Robbins, Stanley L.; Abbas, Abul K. (2005). Robbins and Cotran pathologic basis of disease (7th ed.). St. Louis, Mo: Elsevier Saunders. pp. 922. ISBN 0-7216-0187-1.
  42. ↑ Bissonnette, J.; Généreux, A.; Côté, J.; Nguyen, B.; Perreault, P.; Bouchard, L.; Pomier-Layrargues, G. (Aug 2012). "Hepatic hemodynamics in 24 patients with nodular regenerative hyperplasia and symptomatic portal hypertension.". J Gastroenterol Hepatol 27 (8): 1336-40. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1746.2012.07168.x. PMID 22554152.
  43. ↑ Dorland's Medical Dictionary. 30th Ed.
  44. ↑ DeLeve, LD.; Shulman, HM.; McDonald, GB. (Feb 2002). "Toxic injury to hepatic sinusoids: sinusoidal obstruction syndrome (veno-occlusive disease).". Semin Liver Dis 22 (1): 27-42. doi:10.1055/s-2002-23204. PMID 11928077..
  45. ↑ Helmy, A. (Jan 2006). "Review article: updates in the pathogenesis and therapy of hepatic sinusoidal obstruction syndrome.". Aliment Pharmacol Ther 23 (1): 11-25. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2036.2006.02742.x. PMID 16393276.
  46. ↑ Burt, Alastair D.;Portmann, Bernard C.;Ferrell, Linda D. (2006). MacSween's Pathology of the Liver (5th ed.). Churchill Livingstone. pp. 174-5. ISBN 978-0-443-10012-3.
  47. ↑ URL: http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=9184868. Accessed on: 23 September 2009.
  48. ↑ Burt, Alastair D.;Portmann, Bernard C.;Ferrell, Linda D. (2006). MacSween's Pathology of the Liver (5th ed.). Churchill Livingstone. pp. 176. ISBN 978-0-443-10012-3.
  49. ↑ Meyenburg complex. Stedman's Medical Dictionary. 27th Ed.
  50. ↑ Bile duct hamartomas--the von Meyenburg complex. Salles VJ, Marotta A, Netto JM, Speranzini MB, Martins MR. Hepatobiliary Pancreat Dis Int. 2007 Feb;6(1):108-9. PMID 17287178.
  51. ↑ [The von Meyenburg complex] Schwab SA, Bautz W, Uder M, Kuefner MA. Rontgenpraxis. 2008;56(6):241-4. German. PMID 19294869.
  52. ↑ Guglielmi FW, Boggio-Bertinet D, Federico A, et al. (September 2006). "Total parenteral nutrition-related gastroenterological complications". Dig Liver Dis 38 (9): 623–42. doi:10.1016/j.dld.2006.04.002. PMID 16766237.
  53. ↑ Li, SJ.; Nussbaum, MS.; McFadden, DW.; Gapen, CL.; Dayal, R.; Fischer, JE. (Aug 1988). "Addition of glucagon to total parenteral nutrition (TPN) prevents hepatic steatosis in rats.". Surgery 104 (2): 350-7. PMID 3135627.
  54. ↑ Stanko, RT.; Nathan, G.; Mendelow, H.; Adibi, SA. (Jan 1987). "Development of hepatic cholestasis and fibrosis in patients with massive loss of intestine supported by prolonged parenteral nutrition.". Gastroenterology 92 (1): 197-202. PMID 3096806.
  55. ↑ 55.0 55.1 55.2 55.3 Gattermann, N. (Jul 2009). "The treatment of secondary hemochromatosis.". Dtsch Arztebl Int 106 (30): 499-504, I. doi:10.3238/arztebl.2009.0499. PMC 2735704. PMID 19727383. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2735704/.
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