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#Prognostic markers, e.g. ERBB2 (HER2). | #Prognostic markers, e.g. ERBB2 (HER2). | ||
#Proving clonality - in the context of hematologic malignancies. | #Proving clonality - in the context of hematologic malignancies. | ||
#Mutation specific antibodies, eg. [[IDH-1]] R132H. | |||
Method was introduced in 1941 by Coons.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Coons | first1 = AH. | title = The development of immunohistochemistry. | journal = Ann N Y Acad Sci | volume = 177 | issue = | pages = 5-9 | month = Jun | year = 1971 | doi = | PMID = 4400556 }}</ref> | |||
==Theory== | ==Theory== | ||
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**Older.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Vosse | first1 = BA. | last2 = Seelentag | first2 = W. | last3 = Bachmann | first3 = A. | last4 = Bosman | first4 = FT. | last5 = Yan | first5 = P. | title = Background staining of visualization systems in immunohistochemistry: comparison of the Avidin-Biotin Complex system and the EnVision+ system. | journal = Appl Immunohistochem Mol Morphol | volume = 15 | issue = 1 | pages = 103-7 | month = Mar | year = 2007 | doi = | PMID = 17536316 }}</ref> | **Older.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Vosse | first1 = BA. | last2 = Seelentag | first2 = W. | last3 = Bachmann | first3 = A. | last4 = Bosman | first4 = FT. | last5 = Yan | first5 = P. | title = Background staining of visualization systems in immunohistochemistry: comparison of the Avidin-Biotin Complex system and the EnVision+ system. | journal = Appl Immunohistochem Mol Morphol | volume = 15 | issue = 1 | pages = 103-7 | month = Mar | year = 2007 | doi = | PMID = 17536316 }}</ref> | ||
**May suffer from endogenous avidin-biotin activity.<ref name=pmid17536316>{{Cite journal | last1 = Vosse | first1 = BA. | last2 = Seelentag | first2 = W. | last3 = Bachmann | first3 = A. | last4 = Bosman | first4 = FT. | last5 = Yan | first5 = P. | title = Background staining of visualization systems in immunohistochemistry: comparison of the Avidin-Biotin Complex system and the EnVision+ system. | journal = Appl Immunohistochem Mol Morphol | volume = 15 | issue = 1 | pages = 103-7 | month = Mar | year = 2007 | doi = | PMID = 17536316 }}</ref> | **May suffer from endogenous avidin-biotin activity.<ref name=pmid17536316>{{Cite journal | last1 = Vosse | first1 = BA. | last2 = Seelentag | first2 = W. | last3 = Bachmann | first3 = A. | last4 = Bosman | first4 = FT. | last5 = Yan | first5 = P. | title = Background staining of visualization systems in immunohistochemistry: comparison of the Avidin-Biotin Complex system and the EnVision+ system. | journal = Appl Immunohistochem Mol Morphol | volume = 15 | issue = 1 | pages = 103-7 | month = Mar | year = 2007 | doi = | PMID = 17536316 }}</ref> | ||
***Higher false positive rates than with polymer based methods. | |||
*Polymer based methods. | *Polymer based methods. | ||
**Newer. | **Newer. | ||
**Less prone to false positives. | |||
***Negative controls not needed or infrequently required.<ref name=pmid24714041>{{Cite journal | last1 = Torlakovic | first1 = EE. | last2 = Francis | first2 = G. | last3 = Garratt | first3 = J. | last4 = Gilks | first4 = B. | last5 = Hyjek | first5 = E. | last6 = Ibrahim | first6 = M. | last7 = Miller | first7 = R. | last8 = Nielsen | first8 = S. | last9 = Petcu | first9 = EB. | title = Standardization of negative controls in diagnostic immunohistochemistry: recommendations from the international ad hoc expert panel. | journal = Appl Immunohistochem Mol Morphol | volume = 22 | issue = 4 | pages = 241-52 | month = Apr | year = 2014 | doi = 10.1097/PAI.0000000000000069 | PMID = 24714041 }}</ref> | |||
==Quality control== | ==Quality control== | ||
This is an evolving area in pathology that has been ignored for a surprisingly long time. | This is an evolving area in pathology that has been ignored for a surprisingly long time. | ||
It is touched upon the in the ''[[quality]]'' article in the ''[[Quality#Immunohistochemistry|immunohistochemistry]]'' section. | It is touched upon the in the ''[[quality]]'' article in the ''[[Quality#Immunohistochemistry|immunohistochemistry]]'' section. | ||
There are at least 62 pre-analytical variables to be considered, that may affect staining results.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Engel | first1 = KB. | last2 = Moore | first2 = HM. | title = Effects of preanalytical variables on the detection of proteins by immunohistochemistry in formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissue. | journal = Arch Pathol Lab Med | volume = 135 | issue = 5 | pages = 537-43 | month = May | year = 2011 | doi = 10.1043/2010-0702-RAIR.1 | PMID = 21526952 }}</ref> | |||
==Interpretation== | ==Interpretation== | ||
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#*A combination of the above. | #*A combination of the above. | ||
Generally, interpretations can be subjective, and this is especially true when the staining is weak and focal. In other words, "... your weak [positive] stain might be somebody else’s negative."<ref>URL: [http://bitesizebio.com/articles/immunohistochemistry-getting-the-stain-you-want/ http://bitesizebio.com/articles/immunohistochemistry-getting-the-stain-you-want/]. Accessed on: 1 September 2012.</ref> | Generally, interpretations can be subjective, and this is especially true when the staining is weak and focal. In other words, "... your weak [positive] stain might be somebody else’s negative."<ref>URL: [http://bitesizebio.com/articles/immunohistochemistry-getting-the-stain-you-want/ http://bitesizebio.com/articles/immunohistochemistry-getting-the-stain-you-want/]. Accessed on: 1 September 2012.</ref> | ||
The cynical might say it is unwritten rule that: "... if the stain is weak and focal it can be anything you want to make it -- positive or negative -- so it fits perfectly with your diagnosis!" | The cynical might say it is an unwritten rule that: "... if the stain is weak and focal it can be anything you want to make it -- positive or negative -- so it fits perfectly with your diagnosis!" | ||
In cases where the morphology is unclear, it is judicious to have two or more immunostains that support the diagnosis, and negative stains for important entities in the differential diagnosis. | In cases where the morphology is unclear, it is judicious to have two or more immunostains that support the diagnosis, and negative stains for important entities in the differential diagnosis. | ||
Publications with contradicting results are not uncommon. Differences can arise from the fixation, processing protocol, antibody clone and interpretation. | |||
According to Galloway, one third pathologists substantially overestimate the diagnostic significance of unexpected immunohistochemical staining results.<ref name=pmid21660231>{{Cite journal | last1 = Galloway | first1 = M. | title = Base-rate error in the interpretation of immunohistochemistry. | journal = Patholog Res Int | volume = 2011 | issue = | pages = 636495 | month = | year = 2011 | doi = 10.4061/2011/636495 | PMID = 21660231 }}</ref> | |||
==General (malignant) differential diagnosis== | ==General (malignant) differential diagnosis== | ||
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*Carcinoma. | *Carcinoma. | ||
**AE1/AE3 - pankeratin. | **[[AE1/AE3]] - pankeratin. | ||
**Others: [[EMA]], HMWK, LMWK. | **Others: [[EMA]], HMWK, LMWK. | ||
*Sarcoma. | *Sarcoma. | ||
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**OCT4. | **OCT4. | ||
***PLAP ([[placental alkaline phosphatase]]) - not very sensitive.<ref name=pmid18045648>{{cite journal |author=Iczkowski KA, Butler SL, Shanks JH, ''et al'' |title=Trials of new germ cell immunohistochemical stains in 93 extragonadal and metastatic germ cell tumors |journal=Hum. Pathol. |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=275-81 |year=2008 |month=February |pmid=18045648 |doi=10.1016/j.humpath.2007.07.002 |url=}}</ref> | ***PLAP ([[placental alkaline phosphatase]]) - not very sensitive.<ref name=pmid18045648>{{cite journal |author=Iczkowski KA, Butler SL, Shanks JH, ''et al'' |title=Trials of new germ cell immunohistochemical stains in 93 extragonadal and metastatic germ cell tumors |journal=Hum. Pathol. |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=275-81 |year=2008 |month=February |pmid=18045648 |doi=10.1016/j.humpath.2007.07.002 |url=}}</ref> | ||
**Glypican 3 +ve. | **[[Glypican 3]] +ve. | ||
*Neuroendocrine carcinoma. | *Neuroendocrine carcinoma. | ||
**Chromogranin A. | **Chromogranin A. | ||
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**[[CD56]]. | **[[CD56]]. | ||
**CD57.<ref name=pmid12727026>{{Cite journal | last1 = Kurokawa | first1 = M. | last2 = Nabeshima | first2 = K. | last3 = Akiyama | first3 = Y. | last4 = Maeda | first4 = S. | last5 = Nishida | first5 = T. | last6 = Nakayama | first6 = F. | last7 = Amano | first7 = M. | last8 = Ogata | first8 = K. | last9 = Setoyama | first9 = M. | title = CD56: a useful marker for diagnosing Merkel cell carcinoma. | journal = J Dermatol Sci | volume = 31 | issue = 3 | pages = 219-24 | month = May | year = 2003 | doi = | PMID = 12727026 }}</ref> | **CD57.<ref name=pmid12727026>{{Cite journal | last1 = Kurokawa | first1 = M. | last2 = Nabeshima | first2 = K. | last3 = Akiyama | first3 = Y. | last4 = Maeda | first4 = S. | last5 = Nishida | first5 = T. | last6 = Nakayama | first6 = F. | last7 = Amano | first7 = M. | last8 = Ogata | first8 = K. | last9 = Setoyama | first9 = M. | title = CD56: a useful marker for diagnosing Merkel cell carcinoma. | journal = J Dermatol Sci | volume = 31 | issue = 3 | pages = 219-24 | month = May | year = 2003 | doi = | PMID = 12727026 }}</ref> | ||
*Melanoma. | *[[Melanoma]]. | ||
**S-100, HMB-45, Melan A (MART-1). | **S-100, HMB-45, Melan A (MART-1). | ||
***Additional: melanoma cocktail (HMB-45, MART-1)<ref name=pmid18360125>{{cite journal |author=Jani P, Chetty R, Ghazarian DM |title=An unusual composite pilomatrix carcinoma with intralesional melanocytes: differential diagnosis, immunohistochemical evaluation, and review of the literature |journal=Am J Dermatopathol |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=174–7 |year=2008 |month=April |pmid=18360125 |doi=10.1097/DAD.0b013e318165b8fe |url=}}</ref>, microphthalmia,<ref>URL: [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/omim/156845 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/omim/156845]. Accessed on: 18 August 2010.</ref> tyrosinase.<ref name=pmid17227112>{{Cite journal | last1 = Roma | first1 = AA. | last2 = Magi-Galluzzi | first2 = C. | last3 = Zhou | first3 = M. | title = Differential expression of melanocytic markers in myoid, lipomatous, and vascular components of renal angiomyolipomas. | journal = Arch Pathol Lab Med | volume = 131 | issue = 1 | pages = 122-5 | month = Jan | year = 2007 | doi = 10.1043/1543-2165(2007)131[122:DEOMMI]2.0.CO;2 | PMID = 17227112 }}</ref> | ***Additional: melanoma cocktail (HMB-45, MART-1)<ref name=pmid18360125>{{cite journal |author=Jani P, Chetty R, Ghazarian DM |title=An unusual composite pilomatrix carcinoma with intralesional melanocytes: differential diagnosis, immunohistochemical evaluation, and review of the literature |journal=Am J Dermatopathol |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=174–7 |year=2008 |month=April |pmid=18360125 |doi=10.1097/DAD.0b013e318165b8fe |url=}}</ref>, microphthalmia,<ref>URL: [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/omim/156845 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/omim/156845]. Accessed on: 18 August 2010.</ref> tyrosinase.<ref name=pmid17227112>{{Cite journal | last1 = Roma | first1 = AA. | last2 = Magi-Galluzzi | first2 = C. | last3 = Zhou | first3 = M. | title = Differential expression of melanocytic markers in myoid, lipomatous, and vascular components of renal angiomyolipomas. | journal = Arch Pathol Lab Med | volume = 131 | issue = 1 | pages = 122-5 | month = Jan | year = 2007 | doi = 10.1043/1543-2165(2007)131[122:DEOMMI]2.0.CO;2 | PMID = 17227112 }}</ref> | ||
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==Keratins== | ==Keratins== | ||
{{Main|Keratins}} | |||
Mark epithelial cells. Are typically seen in [[carcinoma]]s. | |||
==Organ specific== | ==Organ specific== | ||
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===Breast markers=== | ===Breast markers=== | ||
*[[GCDFP-15]] ([[AKA]] BRST-2) -- specific, but NOT sensitive. | *[[GCDFP-15]] ([[AKA]] BRST-2) -- specific, but NOT sensitive. | ||
*ER (estrogen receptor) - in normal [[breast]]. | *[[Estrogen receptor|ER]] (estrogen receptor) - in normal [[breast]]. | ||
*PR (progesterone receptor) - in normal breast. | *PR (progesterone receptor) - in normal breast. | ||
*HER2/neu - pathological, assoc. with worse prognosis. | *HER2/neu - pathological, assoc. with worse prognosis. | ||
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===Prostate gland=== | ===Prostate gland=== | ||
*PSA - [[prostate gland|prostatic]]-specific antigen. | *[[PSA]] - [[prostate gland|prostatic]]-specific antigen. | ||
*PSAP - prostatic-specific acid phosphatase. | *[[PSAP]] - prostatic-specific acid phosphatase. | ||
**May be positive in hindgut [[neuroendocrine tumour]]s.<ref name= | **May be positive in hindgut [[neuroendocrine tumour]]s.<ref name=pmid1712549>{{Cite journal | last1 = Azumi | first1 = N. | last2 = Traweek | first2 = ST. | last3 = Battifora | first3 = H. | title = Prostatic acid phosphatase in carcinoid tumors. Immunohistochemical and immunoblot studies. | journal = Am J Surg Pathol | volume = 15 | issue = 8 | pages = 785-90 | month = Aug | year = 1991 | doi = | PMID = 1712549 }}</ref> | ||
*p63 - stains nuclei of basal cell in normal [[prostate]]. | *[[p63]] - stains nuclei of basal cell in normal [[prostate]]. | ||
*34betaE12 - stains basal cells in normal prostate. | *34betaE12 - stains basal cells in normal prostate. | ||
*AMACR (racemase, P504S<ref>[http://www.antibodies-online.com/antibody/125649/P504S+alphaMethylacylCoA+Racemace+AMACR+Human/ http://www.antibodies-online.com/antibody/125649/P504S+alphaMethylacylCoA+Racemace+AMACR+Human/]</ref>) - present in adenocarcinoma (NOT in normal prostate). | *AMACR (racemase, P504S<ref>[http://www.antibodies-online.com/antibody/125649/P504S+alphaMethylacylCoA+Racemace+AMACR+Human/ http://www.antibodies-online.com/antibody/125649/P504S+alphaMethylacylCoA+Racemace+AMACR+Human/]</ref>) - present in adenocarcinoma (NOT in normal prostate). | ||
*AR - usually present in prostate confined cancers.<ref name=pmid20878946>{{Cite journal | last1 = Fleischmann | first1 = A. | last2 = Rocha | first2 = C. | last3 = Schobinger | first3 = S. | last4 = Seiler | first4 = R. | last5 = Wiese | first5 = B. | last6 = Thalmann | first6 = GN. | title = Androgen receptors are differentially expressed in Gleason patterns of prostate cancer and down-regulated in matched lymph node metastases. | journal = Prostate | volume = 71 | issue = 5 | pages = 453-60 | month = Apr | year = 2011 | doi = 10.1002/pros.21259 | PMID = 20878946 }}</ref> | *[[Androgen receptor|AR]] - usually present in prostate confined cancers.<ref name=pmid20878946>{{Cite journal | last1 = Fleischmann | first1 = A. | last2 = Rocha | first2 = C. | last3 = Schobinger | first3 = S. | last4 = Seiler | first4 = R. | last5 = Wiese | first5 = B. | last6 = Thalmann | first6 = GN. | title = Androgen receptors are differentially expressed in Gleason patterns of prostate cancer and down-regulated in matched lymph node metastases. | journal = Prostate | volume = 71 | issue = 5 | pages = 453-60 | month = Apr | year = 2011 | doi = 10.1002/pros.21259 | PMID = 20878946 }}</ref> | ||
*CAP cocktail - [[AKA]] ''CAP'', [[AKA]] ''PIN-4'', [[AKA]] ''PIN''. | *CAP cocktail - [[AKA]] ''CAP'', [[AKA]] ''PIN-4'', [[AKA]] ''PIN''. | ||
**Consists of: AMACR, p63 and HMWK. | **Consists of: AMACR, [[p63]] and HMWK. | ||
**Image: [http://www.webpathology.com/image.asp?case=96&n=5 CAP cocktail (webpathology.com)]. | **Image: [http://www.webpathology.com/image.asp?case=96&n=5 CAP cocktail (webpathology.com)]. | ||
===[[Colorectal tumours|Colorectal carcinoma]] markers=== | ===[[Colorectal tumours|Colorectal carcinoma]] markers=== | ||
*CK20. | *[[CK20]]. | ||
*CDX2. | *CDX2. | ||
**Uncommon in primary lung, breast, pancreas, kidney, gallbladder, liver, urinary bladder, thyroid gland.<ref name=pmid15205684 >{{Cite journal | last1 = Kaimaktchiev | first1 = V. | last2 = Terracciano | first2 = L. | last3 = Tornillo | first3 = L. | last4 = Spichtin | first4 = H. | last5 = Stoios | first5 = D. | last6 = Bundi | first6 = M. | last7 = Korcheva | first7 = V. | last8 = Mirlacher | first8 = M. | last9 = Loda | first9 = M. | title = The homeobox intestinal differentiation factor CDX2 is selectively expressed in gastrointestinal adenocarcinomas. | journal = Mod Pathol | volume = 17 | issue = 11 | pages = 1392-9 | month = Nov | year = 2004 | doi = 10.1038/modpathol.3800205 | PMID = 15205684 }}</ref> | **Uncommon in primary lung, breast, pancreas, kidney, gallbladder, liver, urinary bladder, thyroid gland.<ref name=pmid15205684 >{{Cite journal | last1 = Kaimaktchiev | first1 = V. | last2 = Terracciano | first2 = L. | last3 = Tornillo | first3 = L. | last4 = Spichtin | first4 = H. | last5 = Stoios | first5 = D. | last6 = Bundi | first6 = M. | last7 = Korcheva | first7 = V. | last8 = Mirlacher | first8 = M. | last9 = Loda | first9 = M. | title = The homeobox intestinal differentiation factor CDX2 is selectively expressed in gastrointestinal adenocarcinomas. | journal = Mod Pathol | volume = 17 | issue = 11 | pages = 1392-9 | month = Nov | year = 2004 | doi = 10.1038/modpathol.3800205 | PMID = 15205684 }}</ref> | ||
*CEA. | *[[CEA]]. | ||
===[[Small bowel]]=== | ===[[Small bowel]]=== | ||
*CDX2. | *[[CDX2]]. | ||
*Villin. | *[[Villin]]. | ||
===[[Kidney tumours|Kidney]]=== | ===[[Kidney tumours|Kidney]]=== | ||
[[Renal cell carcinoma]]: | [[Renal cell carcinoma]]: | ||
*RCC, EMA, CD10. | *RCC, [[EMA]], CD10. | ||
*CK7 -ve in clear cell RCC. | *[[CK7]] -ve in clear cell RCC. | ||
*[[AMACR]] +ve in papillary RCC. | *[[AMACR]] +ve in papillary RCC. | ||
*D2-40 +ve in ChRCC. | *D2-40 +ve in ChRCC. | ||
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===[[Ovarian tumours|Ovary]]=== | ===[[Ovarian tumours|Ovary]]=== | ||
*CA125, CK7+, CK20-. | *[[CA125]], [[CK7]]+, CK20-. | ||
*WT1 -- 90% in serous +ve. | *WT1 -- 90% in serous +ve. | ||
====Serous markers==== | ====Serous markers==== | ||
*WT-1, | *[[WT-1]], [[CA125]], D2-40. | ||
===[[Liver neoplasms|Liver]]=== | ===[[Liver neoplasms|Liver]]=== | ||
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**[[WT-1]]. | **[[WT-1]]. | ||
**D2-40. | **D2-40. | ||
**CK5/6. | **[[CK5/6]]. | ||
*Carcinoma markers: | *Carcinoma markers: | ||
**CEA (monoclonal and polyclonal). | **CEA (monoclonal and polyclonal). | ||
**TTF-1. | **[[TTF-1]]. | ||
**Ber-EP4. | **[[Ber-EP4]]. | ||
**MOC-31. | **MOC-31. | ||
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Glial/Neuronal: | Glial/Neuronal: | ||
*MAP2 | *[[MAP2]] | ||
*CD56 | *[[CD56]] | ||
Specific entities: | Specific entities: | ||
*[[EMA]] +ve: [[meningioma]], [[ependymoma]] (cytoplasm dot-like).<ref name=Ref_PSNP12>{{Ref PSNP|12}}</ref> | *[[EMA]] +ve: [[meningioma]], [[ependymoma]] (cytoplasm dot-like).<ref name=Ref_PSNP12>{{Ref PSNP|12}}</ref> | ||
*[[ATRX]] -ve: [[astrocytoma]] | *[[ATRX]] -ve: [[astrocytoma]]. | ||
*[[INI1]] -ve: [[AT/RT]]. | |||
Tumour (low-grade gliomas): | Tumour (low-grade gliomas): | ||
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===Prostate versus bladder=== | ===Prostate versus bladder=== | ||
Prostate adenocarcinoma vs. urothelial carcinoma: | Prostate adenocarcinoma vs. urothelial carcinoma: | ||
*Prostate adenocarcinoma: PSA +ve, PSAP +ve, AR +ve, CK7 -ve, CK20 -ve. | *Prostate adenocarcinoma: PSA +ve, PSAP +ve, AR +ve, CK7 -ve, CK20 -ve, GATA3 -ve. | ||
*Urothelial carcinoma: CK7 +ve, CK20 +ve, PSA -ve, PSAP -ve, AR -ve. | *Urothelial carcinoma: [[GATA3]] +ve, CK7 +ve, CK20 +ve, PSA -ve, PSAP -ve, AR -ve. | ||
===Breast versus ovary=== | ===Breast versus ovary=== | ||
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===[[Seminoma]]=== | ===[[Seminoma]]=== | ||
*D2-40 +ve.<ref name=pmid18045648/> | *D2-40 +ve.<ref name=pmid18045648/> | ||
* | *OCT4 +ve. | ||
===[[Embryonal carcinoma]]=== | ===[[Embryonal carcinoma]]=== | ||
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*S-100 - neural differentiation, melanoma. | *S-100 - neural differentiation, melanoma. | ||
*Desmin - smooth muscle. | *Desmin - smooth muscle. | ||
*MIB1 - proliferation marker (target is Ki-67 protein). | *[[MIB1]] - proliferation marker (target is [[Ki-67]] protein). | ||
*CD99 - blue small cell tumours, membranous staining [[EWS]]. | *CD99 - blue small cell tumours, membranous staining [[EWS]]. | ||
*BCL2 - [[synovial sarcoma]], [[small cell lymphomas]], spindle cell lipoma.<ref name=Ref_DCHH107>{{Ref DCHH|107}}</ref><ref>URL: [http://ajp.amjpathol.org/cgi/content/full/160/3/759 http://ajp.amjpathol.org/cgi/content/full/160/3/759]. Accessed on: 3 August 2010.</ref> | *BCL2 - [[synovial sarcoma]], [[small cell lymphomas]], spindle cell lipoma.<ref name=Ref_DCHH107>{{Ref DCHH|107}}</ref><ref>URL: [http://ajp.amjpathol.org/cgi/content/full/160/3/759 http://ajp.amjpathol.org/cgi/content/full/160/3/759]. Accessed on: 3 August 2010.</ref> | ||
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*Caldesmon - muscle. | *Caldesmon - muscle. | ||
*PDGFR - GIST. | *PDGFR - GIST. | ||
*[[STAT6]] - [[Hemangiopericytoma]]/SFT. | |||
==Muscle markers== | ==Muscle markers== | ||
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==Vimentin and cytokeratin positivity== | ==Vimentin and cytokeratin positivity== | ||
{{Main|Vimentin#Vimentin_and_cytokeratin_positivity}} | |||
A few tumours are positive for both vimentin and cytokeratins. | A few tumours are positive for both vimentin and cytokeratins. | ||
==Sarcomas and cytokeratins== | |||
{{Main|Keratins}} | |||
Most sarcomas are cytokeratin negative. | Most sarcomas are cytokeratin negative. | ||