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'''Neuropathology''' is the bane of many anatomical pathologists in teaching hospitals... 'cause they have to fill in for the neuropathologist when he or she is on vacation.
[[Image:MCA-Stroke-Brain-Human-2.JPG|thumb|right|Gross image showing changes of a [[stroke]]. (WC/Marvin 101)]]
This article is an introduction to '''neuropathology'''. There are separate articles for [[brain tumours]], the [[pituitary gland]], the [[spine]], the [[eye]], [[muscle pathologies]], [[neurohistology]] and [[neuroanatomy]].


This article is an introduction to neuropathology.  There are separate articles for [[brain tumours]], the [[pituitary gland]], the [[spine]], the [[eye]], [[muscle pathologies]], [[neurohistology]] and [[neuroanatomy]].
Neuropathology is the bane of many anatomical pathologists in teaching hospitals... 'cause they have to fill in for the neuropathologist when he or she is on vacation.


==Neuroanatomy==
==Neuroanatomy==
Line 8: Line 9:


==Neuroradiology==
==Neuroradiology==
Enhancing vs. non-enhancing:
Key factors to consider in evaluation:
*If it is tumour... enhancing usu. high grade, non-enhancing usu. low grade.
# Location.
# Number of lesions - single versus multiple.
# Cystic versus solid lesion.
# Enhancement.
 
==Lesion location==
In neuroradiology and neuropathology, real estate is crucial. Lesion location can often narrow your differential.
 
Cortical lesions (gray matter):
* [[Oligodendroglioma]].
* [[DNET]].
* [[Ganglioglioma]].
* [[Pleomorphic xanthoastrocytoma]].
* Extraventricular [[ependymoma]].
 
Cortical-subcortical junction:
* [[brain metastasis|Metastases]].
* Abscesses (hematogenous spread).
 
Subcortical lesions (white matter):
* [[Glioblastoma]].
* Diffuse gliomas.
* Demyelinating plaques.
 
Deep gray matter lesions (e.g. basal ganglia):
* Gliomas.
* [[Hypertensive hemorrhage]]
 
Cerebellar lesions:
* [[Medulloblastoma]].
* [[Pilocytic astrocytoma]].
* [[AT/RT]].
 
Intraventricular lesions:
* [[Ependymoma]].
* [[Subependymoma]].
* [[Pilocytic astrocytoma]].
* [[Central neurocytoma]].
* Rosette forming glioneuronal tumour of the fourth ventricle.
 
Suprasellar (above the pituitary):
* [[Craniopharyngioma]].
* [[Germinoma]].
* [[Pilomyxoid astrocytoma]].
 
==Number of lesions==
If ''single'' lesion = think primary, neoplastic
If ''multiple'' lesions = think metastatic, neoplastic or infectious
'''NB: glioblastoma can be multifocal''' (and the foci can be quite far apart)
 
==Cystic vs. solid lesions==
Some tumours are classically cystic with a small solid component (so-called cyst with a mural nodule) -- e.g. pilocytic astrocytoma, ganglioglioma, hemangioblastoma
 
==Enhancing vs. non-enhancing:==
*In adults, enhancing generally = high grade.
*In pediatrics, it often depends on the pattern.
Two main patterns to be mindful of -- ring enhancing lesions, and cystic lesions with a mural nodule.


===Ring enhancing lesions===
===Ring enhancing lesions===
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*[[Toxoplasmosis]] - most common.<ref>MUN. Feb 3, 2009.</ref>
*[[Toxoplasmosis]] - most common.<ref>MUN. Feb 3, 2009.</ref>


Ring enhancing lesion (DDx) - mnemonic ''MAGICAL DR'':<ref>TN2005 NS7.</ref>
Ring enhancing lesion (DDx) - mnemonic ''MAGICAL DR'':<ref>{{Ref TN2005 |NS7}}</ref>
*Metstasis.
*Metstasis.
*Abscess.
*Abscess.
*Glioblastoma.
*[[Glioblastoma]].
*Infarct.
*[[Infarct]].
*Contusion.
*Contusion.
*AIDS-related.
*AIDS-related.
Line 25: Line 82:
*Demyelination (e.g. [[multiple sclerosis]]).
*Demyelination (e.g. [[multiple sclerosis]]).
*Resolving hematoma.
*Resolving hematoma.
===Cyst with enhancing mural nodule===
*hemangioblastoma (#1 in adults)
*pilocytic astrocytoma (#1 in peds)
*pleomorphic xanthoastrocytoma
*ganglioglioma


==Grossing==
==Grossing==
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*Pyknosis = nuclear shrinkage + darker staining.  
*Pyknosis = nuclear shrinkage + darker staining.  


Images:
=====Images=====
*[http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter2/images2/2-1HIE.jpg Anoxic neurons (neuropathologyweb.org)].
<gallery>
*[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Alzheimer_type_II_astrocyte_high_mag_cropped.jpg Anoxic neurons (WC)].
Image:Alzheimer_type_II_astrocyte_high_mag_cropped.jpg | Anoxic neurons (WC)
Image:AcuteStroke_HE400x.jpg | Neurons in an acute stroke. (WC)
</gallery>
www:
*[http://neuropathology-web.org/chapter2/images2/2-anoxic.png Anoxic neurons (neuropathologyweb.org)].<ref>URL: [http://neuropathology-web.org/chapter2/chapter2aHIE.html http://neuropathology-web.org/chapter2/chapter2aHIE.html]. Accessed on: 10 December 2014.</ref>
*[http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/iacp-olp/APAQ-Images/N1-MS-01-16.gif Anoxic neurons (ouhsc.edu)].<ref>URL: [http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/iacp-olp/apaq-text/N1-MS-01-16-Ans.htm http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/iacp-olp/apaq-text/N1-MS-01-16-Ans.htm] and [http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/iacp-olp/apaq-text/n1-ms-01.htm http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/iacp-olp/apaq-text/n1-ms-01.htm]. Accessed on: 31 October 2010.</ref>
*[http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/iacp-olp/APAQ-Images/N1-MS-01-16.gif Anoxic neurons (ouhsc.edu)].<ref>URL: [http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/iacp-olp/apaq-text/N1-MS-01-16-Ans.htm http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/iacp-olp/apaq-text/N1-MS-01-16-Ans.htm] and [http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/iacp-olp/apaq-text/n1-ms-01.htm http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/iacp-olp/apaq-text/n1-ms-01.htm]. Accessed on: 31 October 2010.</ref>


Line 63: Line 130:
*Vitamin deficiency ([[pellagra]]).<ref name=pmid15577526>{{cite journal |author=Piercecchi-Marti MD, Pélissier-Alicot AL, Leonetti G, Tervé JP, Cianfarani F, Pellissier JF |title=Pellagra: a rare disease observed in a victim of mental and physical abuse |journal=Am J Forensic Med Pathol |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=342–4 |year=2004 |month=December |pmid=15577526 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
*Vitamin deficiency ([[pellagra]]).<ref name=pmid15577526>{{cite journal |author=Piercecchi-Marti MD, Pélissier-Alicot AL, Leonetti G, Tervé JP, Cianfarani F, Pellissier JF |title=Pellagra: a rare disease observed in a victim of mental and physical abuse |journal=Am J Forensic Med Pathol |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=342–4 |year=2004 |month=December |pmid=15577526 |doi= |url=}}</ref>


Images:
=====Images=====
*[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Central_chromatolysis_-_intermed_mag_-_cropped.jpg Central chromatolysis - intermed. mag. (WC)].
<gallery>
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Central_chromatolysis_-_nf_-_very_high_mag.jpg Central chromatolysis - NF stain - very high mag. (WC)].
Image:Central_chromatolysis_-_intermed_mag_-_cropped.jpg | Central chromatolysis - intermed. mag. (WC)
 
Image:Central_chromatolysis_-_nf_-_very_high_mag.jpg | Central chromatolysis - NF stain - very high mag. (WC)
</gallery>
====Axonal swellings====
====Axonal swellings====
H&E:
H&E:
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**Classically described as "funnel-shaped" in benign astrocytes.<ref>MUN. 15 November 2010.</ref>
**Classically described as "funnel-shaped" in benign astrocytes.<ref>MUN. 15 November 2010.</ref>
*Peripheral nucleus.
*Peripheral nucleus.
*Image: [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Reactive_astrocytes_-_lfb_-_high_mag.jpg Reactive astrocytes - high mag. (WC)].
<gallery>
Image:Reactive_astrocytes_-_lfb_-_high_mag.jpg | Reactive astrocytes - high mag. (WC)
</gallery>


Alzheimer type II astrocyte:<ref>URL: [http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter1/chapter1bAstrocytes.html http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter1/chapter1bAstrocytes.html]. Accessed on: 2 July 2010.</ref>
Alzheimer type II astrocyte:<ref>URL: [http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter1/chapter1bAstrocytes.html http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter1/chapter1bAstrocytes.html]. Accessed on: 2 July 2010.</ref>
Line 100: Line 170:
*Indistinct cytoplasm.
*Indistinct cytoplasm.
*Found in the context of ''hepatic encephalopathy'' in basal ganglia and lower layers of cortex.<ref name=Ref_Klatt202>{{Ref Klatt|202}}</ref>
*Found in the context of ''hepatic encephalopathy'' in basal ganglia and lower layers of cortex.<ref name=Ref_Klatt202>{{Ref Klatt|202}}</ref>
*Images:  
*Images:
**[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Alzheimer_type_II_astrocyte_high_mag.jpg Alzheimer type II astrocytes (WC)].
**[http://neuroquiz.com/?page=image&topic=1&qid=2714 Alzheimer type II astrocytes (neuroquiz.com)].
**[http://neuroquiz.com/?page=image&topic=1&qid=2714 Alzheimer type II astrocytes (neuroquiz.com)].
**[http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter10/images10/10-AlzIIl.jpg Alzheimer type II astrocytes (neuropathologyweb.org)] .
**[http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter10/images10/10-AlzIIl.jpg Alzheimer type II astrocytes (neuropathologyweb.org)] .
<gallery>
Image:Alzheimer_type_II_astrocyte_high_mag.jpg| Alzheimer type II astrocytes. (WC)
</gallery>


Creutzfeldt cell:<ref name=Ref_PSNP18>{{Ref PSNP|18}}</ref>  
Creutzfeldt cell:<ref name=Ref_PSNP18>{{Ref PSNP|18}}</ref>  
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Bergmann gliosis (in the cerebellum):<ref name=Ref_PSNP18>{{Ref PSNP|18}}</ref>  
Bergmann gliosis (in the cerebellum):<ref name=Ref_PSNP18>{{Ref PSNP|18}}</ref>  
*Thin layer of cells (2-3 cells) with open nuclei that are larger than granular cell layer nuclei; seen with Purkinje cell loss.
*Thin layer of cells (2-3 cells) with open nuclei that are larger than granular cell layer nuclei; seen with Purkinje cell loss.
**Images:
 
***[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bergmann_gliosis_-_intermed_mag.jpg Bergmann gliosis - intermed. mag. (WC)].
<gallery>
***[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bergmann_gliosis_-_high_mag.jpg Bergmann gliosis - high mag. (WC)].
Image:Bergmann_gliosis_-_intermed_mag.jpg | Bergmann gliosis - intermed. mag. (WC)
***[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Metastatic_adenocarcinoma_-_cerebellum_-_intermed_mag.jpg Bergmann gliosis due to compression by metastasis - intermed mag. (WC)].
Image:Bergmann_gliosis_-_high_mag.jpg | Bergmann gliosis - high mag. (WC)
***[http://tpx.sagepub.com/content/35/5/676/F5.expansion.html Bergmann gliosis (sagepub.com)].
Image:Metastatic_adenocarcinoma_-_cerebellum_-_intermed_mag.jpg | Bergmann gliosis due to compression by metastasis - intermed mag. (WC)
</gallery>
Image:
*[http://tpx.sagepub.com/content/35/5/676/F5.expansion.html Bergmann gliosis (sagepub.com)].


====Reactive change vs. malignancy====
====Reactive change vs. malignancy====
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====Encephalitis====
====Encephalitis====
see also:
* [[Viruses]]
* [[Microorganisms]]
=====General=====
=====General=====
DDx:
DDx:
*Viral encephalitis.
*Viral encephalitis (Neurotrophic viruses):<ref>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Ludlow | first1 = M. | last2 = Kortekaas | first2 = J. | last3 = Herden | first3 = C. | last4 = Hoffmann | first4 = B. | last5 = Tappe | first5 = D. | last6 = Trebst | first6 = C. | last7 = Griffin | first7 = DE. | last8 = Brindle | first8 = HE. | last9 = Solomon | first9 = T. | title = Neurotropic virus infections as the cause of immediate and delayed neuropathology. | journal = Acta Neuropathol | volume = 131 | issue = 2 | pages = 159-84 | month = Feb | year = 2016 | doi = 10.1007/s00401-015-1511-3 | PMID = 26659576 }}</ref>
** Eteroviruses are the most common cause of aseptic meningitis.
***Coxackie Virus.
***Enteric cytopathic human orphan (ECHO) virus.
** Human Herpesviruses (HSV1, HSV2, VZV, CMV, EBV, Roseola)
*** HSV encephalitis has high mortality without acyclovir treatment.
*** Childhood cerebellitis mainly associated with varicella.
*** VZV is the second most common viral meningitis after enterovirus.
** Measles virus(worldwide more than 100.000 deaths annually).
***Is linked to [[acute demyelinating encephalomyelitis]] (ADEM) and Subacute sclerosing encephalitis (SSPE).
** Seasonal influenza A virus (highest patogenic potential: avian influenza H5N1).
** Polio and Non-Polio Enterovirus (mostly children).
***Although massive eradication: Polio still existent in Pakistan, Afghanistan, Nigeria.
** Rabies virus
** Tick-borne encephalitis virus (Europe, Siberia, Russian far-east).
** West-Nile virus (US, Southern europe).
** St. Louis encephalitis virus (US).
** Japanese encephalitis virus (South, south-east asia, high disability rate).
** La Crosse virus (esp. children, midwest & eastern US).
** Borna disease virus (VSBV-1).
** Equine encephalitis viruses (EEEV, VEEV, WEEV, CHIKV).
*Paraneoplastic syndromes.
*Paraneoplastic syndromes.
*Autoimmune antibody-mediated limbic encephalitis (NMDAR).
*Purulent bacterial encephalitis
**Streptococcus, [[Actinomyces]] ....
*Septic metastatic encephalitis
**microabscesses, local astrogliosis, two or more granulocytic infiltrates without relation to vessel.<ref>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Tauber | first1 = SC. | last2 = Bunkowski | first2 = S. | last3 = Brück | first3 = W. | last4 = Nau | first4 = R. | title = Septic metastatic encephalitis: coexistence of brain damage and repair. | journal = Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol | volume = 37 | issue = 7 | pages = 768-76 | month = Dec | year = 2011 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2990.2011.01196.x | PMID = 21696418 }}</ref>
*Septic embolic encephalitis
**Embolic endocarditis, Stroke-like lesions.<ref>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Bitsch | first1 = A. | last2 = Nau | first2 = R. | last3 = Hilgers | first3 = RA. | last4 = Verheggen | first4 = R. | last5 = Werner | first5 = G. | last6 = Prange | first6 = HW. | title = Focal neurologic deficits in infective endocarditis and other septic diseases. | journal = Acta Neurol Scand | volume = 94 | issue = 4 | pages = 279-86 | month = Oct | year = 1996 | doi =  | PMID = 8937541 }}</ref>
*Non-purulent bacterial encephalitis
** [[Tuberculosis]]...
=====Gross=====
*Frontal and temporal lobe - most common for HSV encephalitis.<ref>{{Ref APBR|416 Q47}}</ref>


=====Microscopic=====
=====Microscopic=====
Features:
Features:<ref name=pmid20051019>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Takei | first1 = H. | last2 = Wilfong | first2 = A. | last3 = Malphrus | first3 = A. | last4 = Yoshor | first4 = D. | last5 = Hunter | first5 = JV. | last6 = Armstrong | first6 = DL. | last7 = Bhattacharjee | first7 = MB. | title = Dual pathology in Rasmussen's encephalitis: a study of seven cases and review of the literature. | journal = Neuropathology | volume = 30 | issue = 4 | pages = 381-91 | month = Aug | year = 2010 | doi = 10.1111/j.1440-1789.2009.01079.x | PMID = 20051019 }}</ref>
*Perivascular and perineuronal inflammation.
*Perivascular inflammation.
*Microglia.
*+/-Neuronophagia.
**Phagocytosis of neurons.<ref>URL: [http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/neuronophagia http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/neuronophagia]. Accessed on: 11 April 2012.</ref>
*+/-Viral cytopathic changes.
*+/-Viral cytopathic changes.
*+/-Perineuronal inflammation.
Notes:
*Hemorrhage<ref name=pmid18246335>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Vossough | first1 = A. | last2 = Zimmerman | first2 = RA. | last3 = Bilaniuk | first3 = LT. | last4 = Schwartz | first4 = EM. | title = Imaging findings of neonatal herpes simplex virus type 2 encephalitis. | journal = Neuroradiology | volume = 50 | issue = 4 | pages = 355-66 | month = Apr | year = 2008 | doi = 10.1007/s00234-007-0349-3 | PMID = 18246335 }}</ref> and necrosis - characteristic of HSV encephalitis.


Image:
Image:
*[http://neuropathology-web.org/chapter5/images5/5-21l.jpg HSV encephalitis (neuropathology-web.org)].<ref>URL: [http://neuropathology-web.org/chapter5/chapter5dViruses.html http://neuropathology-web.org/chapter5/chapter5dViruses.html]. Accessed on: 27 January 2012.</ref>
*[http://neuropathology-web.org/chapter5/images5/5-21l.jpg HSV encephalitis (neuropathology-web.org)].<ref>URL: [http://neuropathology-web.org/chapter5/chapter5dViruses.html http://neuropathology-web.org/chapter5/chapter5dViruses.html]. Accessed on: 27 January 2012.</ref>
=====IHC=====
IHC stains for:
*Viral etiologies, e.g. [[HSV]], [[CMV]].
*Parasites, e.g. [[toxoplasma]].
*[[Fungi]], e.g. PASD.
<gallery>
File:CNS_lymphocytic_encephalitis_frozen_section.jpg | Intraoperative appearance of a lymphocytic encephalitis (WC/jensflorian)
File:CNS_lymphocytic_encephalitis_FFPE_section.jpg | Perivascular inflammation in a lymphocytic encephalitis (WC/jensflorian)
File:HSV_hemorrhagic_encephalitis.jpg | Hemorrhage in HSV encephalitis (WC/jensflorian)
File:HSV_necrotizing_encephalitis.jpg | HSV encephalitis, higher magnification (WC/jensflorian)
File:Cmv_status_verrucosus.jpg | Neonatal brain with migration disturbances due to CMV infection (WC/jensflorian)
File:Cmv_neuronal_inclusions.jpg | Neuronal nuclear inclusions in a neonatal CMV infection (WC/jensflorian)
File:Rabies encephalitis PHIL 3368 lores.jpg | Rabies encephalitis (CDC.gov)
File:Rabies negri bodies brain.jpg | Negri bodies in Purkinje cells (CDC.gov)
</gallery>
====Vasculitis====
DDx Cerebral vasculitis / angiitis:
*[[Systemic lupus erythematosus]] (SLE)
*[[Rheumatoid arthritis]].
*Medications and drugs (amphetamine, cocaine and heroin).
*Paraneoplastic(lymphomas, leukemia and lung cancer).
*[[Granulomatosis_with_polyangiitis]]
*[[Giant cell arteritis]]
*[[Takayasu's arteritis]]
*[[Polyarteritis nodosa]]
*Beta-amyloid-related angiitis (ABRA)
<gallery>
File:ABRA_HE_40x.jpg | Beta-amyloid related angitis, HE (WC)
File:ABRA_beta-amyloid_40x.jpg |  Beta-amyloid related angiitis, abeta IHC (WC)
File:Giant cell arteritis -- low mag.jpg | Giant cell arteritis, HE (WC)
</gallery>


===Architecture===
===Architecture===
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***Image: [http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/IACP-OLP/APAQ-Images/N1-TU-01-17.gif Medulloblastoma (ouhsc.edu)].<ref>URL: [http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/IACP-OLP/APAQ-Text/N1-TU-01.htm#17 http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/IACP-OLP/APAQ-Text/N1-TU-01.htm#17]. Accessed on: 3 December 2010.</ref>
***Image: [http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/IACP-OLP/APAQ-Images/N1-TU-01-17.gif Medulloblastoma (ouhsc.edu)].<ref>URL: [http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/IACP-OLP/APAQ-Text/N1-TU-01.htm#17 http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/IACP-OLP/APAQ-Text/N1-TU-01.htm#17]. Accessed on: 3 December 2010.</ref>
**PNET (can be thought of as a supratentorial medulloblastoma) .
**PNET (can be thought of as a supratentorial medulloblastoma) .
**Neuroblastoma


*Flexner-Wintersteiner rosette = rosette with empty centre (donut hole).<ref name=pmid16551982/>
*Flexner-Wintersteiner rosette = rosette with empty centre (donut hole).<ref name=pmid16551982/>
**[[Retinoblastoma]]s.
**[[Retinoblastoma]]s.
**Pineoblastomas.
**[[Pineoblastomas]].
**Medulloepitheliomas.
**[[Medulloepithelioma]]s.


*True ependymal rosette = surrounds a space.<ref name=pmid16551982/>
*True ependymal rosette = surrounds a space.<ref name=pmid16551982/>
Line 183: Line 337:
**[[Pineocytoma]].
**[[Pineocytoma]].
**[[Neurocytoma]].
**[[Neurocytoma]].
**[[RGNT]] - Rosette forming glioneuronal tumor of the IVth ventricle.
*Radial (cartwheel) profiles = neoplastic cells anchoring to stromal vessels, shorter processes than in ependymal pseudorosettes
**[[Astroblastoma]].
**[[Glioblastoma]].
*Multilayered rosettes
**[[Ependymomblastoma]]s.
**[[Medulloepithelioma]]s.
*Meningeothelial rosettes
**[[Meningioma]] - a rare pattern.<ref>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Liverman | first1 = C. | last2 = Mafra | first2 = M. | last3 = Chuang | first3 = SS. | last4 = Shivane | first4 = A. | last5 = Chakrabarty | first5 = A. | last6 = Highley | first6 = R. | last7 = Hilton | first7 = DA. | last8 = Byrne | first8 = NP. | last9 = Wesseling | first9 = P. | title = A clinicopathologic study of 11 rosette-forming meningiomas: a rare and potentially confusing pattern. | journal = Acta Neuropathol | volume = 130 | issue = 2 | pages = 311-3 | month = Aug | year = 2015 | doi = 10.1007/s00401-015-1456-6 | PMID = 26106026 }}</ref>


====Other====
<gallery>
Image:Neuroblastoma Homer Wright rosettes HE.jpg | Homer-Wright rosettes (WC).
Image:RGNT HE 2.jpg | Neurocytic rosettes (WC).
Image:Ependymoma H&E.jpg | Perivascular pseudorosette (WC).
Image:Ependymoblastoma ETMRjpg.jpg | Multilayered rosettes (WC).
Image:Ependymoblastomatous Rosette.jpg | Ependymoblastous rosettes (WC/Marvin101).
Image:Ependymoma true ependymal rosettes and pseudorosettes.jpg | True ependymal rosettes and pseudorosettes (WC).
Image:Astroblastoma HE Specimen.jpg | Radial (cartwheel) profiles (WC).
</gallery>
 
====Other important histological features====
*Rosenthal fibres = worm-like or corkscrew-like (brightly) eosinophilic bodies; 10-40 micrometers.
*Rosenthal fibres = worm-like or corkscrew-like (brightly) eosinophilic bodies; 10-40 micrometers.
**Key feature: variable thickness; helps separate from RBCs.
**Key feature: variable thickness; helps separate from RBCs.
**Well-seen on trichrome stains.
**Well-seen on trichrome stains.  
**Images: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rosenthal_HE_40x.jpg Rosenthal fibres (WP)], [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rosenthal_fibers.jpg Rosenthal fibres - smear (WC/AFIP)].
<gallery>
*Eosinophilic granular bodies = related to Rosenthal fibres; round cytoplasmic hyaline droplets in astrocytes.<ref>{{Ref MBNP|11}}</ref>
Image:Rosenthal_HE_40x.jpg | Rosenthal fibres. (WP)
**Image: [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pilocytic_Micro.jpg EGBs (WC/AFIP)].
Image:Rosenthal_fibers.jpg | Rosenthal fibres - smear (WC/AFIP)
</gallery>
*Eosinophilic granular bodies = related to Rosenthal fibres; round cytoplasmic hyaline droplets in [[astrocyte]]s.<ref>{{Ref MBNP|11}}</ref>
<gallery>
File:Pilocytic Micro.jpg | Eosinophilic granular bodies in pilocytic astrocytoma smear (WC/AFIP)
File:PXA HE x20.jpg | Eosinophilic granular body in a pleomorphic xanthoastrocytoma (WC/jensflorian)
</gallery>
 
*Pseudopalisading - picket fence-like alignment of cells; long axis of cells perpendicular to interface with other structures/cells.
*Pseudopalisading - picket fence-like alignment of cells; long axis of cells perpendicular to interface with other structures/cells.
**Pseudopalisading of tumour cells (around necrotic regions) is seen in glioblastoma.  
**Pseudopalisading of tumour cells (around necrotic regions) is seen in [[glioblastoma]].  
<gallery>
File:GBM pseudopalisading necrosis.jpg | Pseudopalisading necrosis in a glioblastoma (WC/jensflorian)
</gallery>
 
*Perivascular lymphocytic cuffing - Lymphocytes surrounding vessels.
** Seen in many inflammatory conditions including MS.
** Often seen in [[ganglioglioma]] and [[pleomorphic xanthoastrocytoma]].
** Less common in some gemistocytic [[astrocytoma]].
*** No association with survival. <ref>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Rossi | first1 = ML. | last2 = Jones | first2 = NR. | last3 = Candy | first3 = E. | last4 = Nicoll | first4 = JA. | last5 = Compton | first5 = JS. | last6 = Hughes | first6 = JT. | last7 = Esiri | first7 = MM. | last8 = Moss | first8 = TH. | last9 = Cruz-Sanchez | first9 = FF. | title = The mononuclear cell infiltrate compared with survival in high-grade astrocytomas. | journal = Acta Neuropathol | volume = 78 | issue = 2 | pages = 189-93 | month =  | year = 1989 | doi =  | PMID = 2750489 }}</ref>
<gallery>
File:Ganglioglioma lymphocytic cuffing PAS.jpg | Lymphocytic cuffing in [[ganglioglioma]] (WC/jensflorian)
</gallery>


Note:  
Note:  
Line 200: Line 395:
*Negri bodies.
*Negri bodies.
**Cytoplasmic inclusions; classically in Purkinje cells of the cerebellum, pyramidal cells of Ammon's horn.
**Cytoplasmic inclusions; classically in Purkinje cells of the cerebellum, pyramidal cells of Ammon's horn.
**Rabies.
**[[Rabies]].  
**Image: [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rabies_encephalitis_Negri_bodies_PHIL_3377_lores.jpg Negri bodies (WC/CDC)].
<gallery>
Image:Rabies_encephalitis_Negri_bodies_PHIL_3377_lores.jpg | Negri bodies. (WC/CDC)
</gallery>
*Owl eye inclusions.
**Basiopilic neuronal inclusions in enlarged cells, typically seen in CMV encephalitis
<gallery>
Image:CMV encephalitis owl eye inclusions HE stain.jpg | Owl eye inclusions
</gallery>


*Lewy bodies.
*Lewy bodies.
**Eosinophilic cytoplasmic inclusion - composed mostly of alpha-synuclein.<ref name=pmid15235805>{{cite journal |author=Marui W, Iseki E, Kato M, Akatsu H, Kosaka K |title=Pathological entity of dementia with Lewy bodies and its differentiation from Alzheimer's disease |journal=Acta Neuropathol. |volume=108 |issue=2 |pages=121–8 |year=2004 |month=August |pmid=15235805 |doi=10.1007/s00401-004-0869-4 |url=}}</ref>
**Eosinophilic cytoplasmic inclusion - composed mostly of alpha-synuclein.<ref name=pmid15235805>{{cite journal |author=Marui W, Iseki E, Kato M, Akatsu H, Kosaka K |title=Pathological entity of dementia with Lewy bodies and its differentiation from Alzheimer's disease |journal=Acta Neuropathol. |volume=108 |issue=2 |pages=121–8 |year=2004 |month=August |pmid=15235805 |doi=10.1007/s00401-004-0869-4 |url=}}</ref>
**Image: [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lewy_Koerperchen.JPG Lewy body (WC)].
<gallery>
 
Image:Lewy_Koerperchen.JPG | Lewy body. (WC)
</gallery>
====Table of inclusions====
====Table of inclusions====
{| class="wikitable"  
{| class="wikitable sortable"  
| Feature  
! Feature  
| Appearance
! Appearance
| Associated disease
! Associated disease
| Comment
! Comment
| Image
! Image
|-
|-
| Grumous bodies<br>[[AKA]] granular bodies
| Grumose bodies<br>[[AKA]] granular bodies
| granular and eosinophilic ~50 micrometers
| granular and eosinophilic ~50 micrometers
| neurodegenerative disease, neuroaxonal dystrophies, aging
| neurodegenerative disease, neuroaxonal dystrophies, aging
Line 231: Line 434:
| [[Parkinson disease]], dementia with Lewy bodies
| [[Parkinson disease]], dementia with Lewy bodies
| morphology dependent on <br>location in brain; +ve for alpha-synuclein, <br>alpha-B crystallin, ubiquitin
| morphology dependent on <br>location in brain; +ve for alpha-synuclein, <br>alpha-B crystallin, ubiquitin
| [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lewy_Koerperchen.JPG], [http://firstaidteam.com/usmlerximages/v/USMLERxLewy+bodies.gif.html]
| [[Image:Lewy_Koerperchen.JPG |thumb|center|150px|]], [http://firstaidteam.com/usmlerximages/v/USMLERxLewy+bodies.gif.html]
|-  
|-  
| Lafora body
| Lafora body
Line 249: Line 452:
| rabies
| rabies
| found in hippocampal neurons and Purkinje cells
| found in hippocampal neurons and Purkinje cells
| [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rabies_encephalitis_Negri_bodies_PHIL_3377_lores.jpg]
| [[Image:Rabies_encephalitis_Negri_bodies_PHIL_3377_lores.jpg|thumb|center|150px|]]
|-  
|-  
| Hirano body
| Hirano body
Line 303: Line 506:
Standard work-up:
Standard work-up:
*GFAP.
*GFAP.
*p53.
*MAP2C. <ref>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Blümcke | first1 = I. | last2 = Müller | first2 = S. | last3 = Buslei | first3 = R. | last4 = Riederer | first4 = BM. | last5 = Wiestler | first5 = OD. | title = Microtubule-associated protein-2 immunoreactivity: a useful tool in the differential diagnosis of low-grade neuroepithelial tumors. | journal = Acta Neuropathol | volume = 108 | issue = 2 | pages = 89-96 | month = Aug | year = 2004 | doi = 10.1007/s00401-004-0873-8 | PMID = 15146346 }}</ref>
*Ki-67.
*Ki-67 (MIB-1).
 
Useful additional markers:
*IDH1(R132H) in Astrocytic/Oligodendroglial tumors. <ref>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Paulus | first1 = W. | title = GFAP, Ki67 and IDH1: perhaps the golden triad of glioma immunohistochemistry. | journal = Acta Neuropathol | volume = 118 | issue = 5 | pages = 603-4 | month = Nov | year = 2009 | doi = 10.1007/s00401-009-0600-6 | PMID = 19847448 }}</ref>
*ATRX in mixed gliomas. <ref>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Reuss | first1 = DE. | last2 = Sahm | first2 = F. | last3 = Schrimpf | first3 = D. | last4 = Wiestler | first4 = B. | last5 = Capper | first5 = D. | last6 = Koelsche | first6 = C. | last7 = Schweizer | first7 = L. | last8 = Korshunov | first8 = A. | last9 = Jones | first9 = DT. | title = ATRX and IDH1-R132H immunohistochemistry with subsequent copy number analysis and IDH sequencing as a basis for an "integrated" diagnostic approach for adult astrocytoma, oligodendroglioma and glioblastoma. | journal = Acta Neuropathol | volume = 129 | issue = 1 | pages = 133-46 | month = Jan | year = 2015 | doi = 10.1007/s00401-014-1370-3 | PMID = 25427834 }}</ref>
*EMA in Ependymal tumors. <ref>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Hasselblatt | first1 = M. | last2 = Paulus | first2 = W. | title = Sensitivity and specificity of epithelial membrane antigen staining patterns in ependymomas. | journal = Acta Neuropathol | volume = 106 | issue = 4 | pages = 385-8 | month = Oct | year = 2003 | doi = 10.1007/s00401-003-0752-8 | PMID = 12898159 }}</ref>
*OLIG-2 usually -ve in Ependymomas. <ref>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Ishizawa | first1 = K. | last2 = Komori | first2 = T. | last3 = Shimada | first3 = S. | last4 = Hirose | first4 = T. | title = Olig2 and CD99 are useful negative markers for the diagnosis of brain tumors. | journal = Clin Neuropathol | volume = 27 | issue = 3 | pages = 118-28 | month =  | year =  | doi =  | PMID = 18552083 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Otero | first1 = JJ. | last2 = Rowitch | first2 = D. | last3 = Vandenberg | first3 = S. | title = OLIG2 is differentially expressed in pediatric astrocytic and in ependymal neoplasms. | journal = J Neurooncol | volume = 104 | issue = 2 | pages = 423-38 | month = Sep | year = 2011 | doi = 10.1007/s11060-010-0509-x | PMID = 21193945 }}</ref>
===Neuronal===
===Neuronal===
*Synaptophysin.
*Synaptophysin.
Line 319: Line 526:
=Brain tumours=
=Brain tumours=
{{main|Neuropathology tumours}}
{{main|Neuropathology tumours}}
Tumours are a big part of neuropathology.  The most common brain tumour is a metastasis.  The most common primary tumour (in adults) is glioblastoma which has a horrible prognosis.
Tumours are a big part of neuropathology.  The most common brain tumour (in adults) is a metastasis.  The most common primary tumours originating in the brain (in adults) are [[glioma]]s. More than 50% of these are classified as [[glioblastoma]] which has a horrible prognosis.


=Non-tumour=
=Non-tumour=
==Cerebral hemorrhage==
==Vascular disorders==
===Cerebral hemorrhage===
:See: ''[[Intracranial hematoma]]'' for intracranial bleeds
:See: ''[[Intracranial hematoma]]'' for intracranial bleeds


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*[[Intracerebral hematoma]]s.
*[[Intracerebral hematoma]]s.


==Duret hematoma==
===Duret hematoma===
*[[AKA]] Duret hemorrhage.
*[[AKA]] Duret hemorrhage.
===General===
====General====
*Bleed in the upper brainstem (midbrain and pons).
*Bleed in the upper brainstem (midbrain and pons).
**Thought to be due to transtentorial herniation secondary to supratentorial mass effect (e.g. supratentorial tumour, [[intracranial hemorrhage]]).<ref name=pmid11819006>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Parizel | first1 = PM. | last2 = Makkat | first2 = S. | last3 = Jorens | first3 = PG. | last4 = Ozsarlak | first4 = O. | last5 = Cras | first5 = P. | last6 = Van Goethem | first6 = JW. | last7 = van den Hauwe | first7 = L. | last8 = Verlooy | first8 = J. | last9 = De Schepper | first9 = AM. | title = Brainstem hemorrhage in descending transtentorial herniation (Duret hemorrhage). | journal = Intensive Care Med | volume = 28 | issue = 1 | pages = 85-8 | month = Jan | year = 2002 | doi = 10.1007/s00134-001-1160-y | PMID = 11819006 }}</ref>
**Thought to be due to transtentorial herniation secondary to supratentorial mass effect (e.g. supratentorial tumour, [[intracranial hemorrhage]]).<ref name=pmid11819006>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Parizel | first1 = PM. | last2 = Makkat | first2 = S. | last3 = Jorens | first3 = PG. | last4 = Ozsarlak | first4 = O. | last5 = Cras | first5 = P. | last6 = Van Goethem | first6 = JW. | last7 = van den Hauwe | first7 = L. | last8 = Verlooy | first8 = J. | last9 = De Schepper | first9 = AM. | title = Brainstem hemorrhage in descending transtentorial herniation (Duret hemorrhage). | journal = Intensive Care Med | volume = 28 | issue = 1 | pages = 85-8 | month = Jan | year = 2002 | doi = 10.1007/s00134-001-1160-y | PMID = 11819006 }}</ref>
*Often fatal.<ref name=pmid11098635>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Fujimoto | first1 = Y. | last2 = Aguiar | first2 = PH. | last3 = Freitas | first3 = AB. | last4 = de Andrade | first4 = AF. | last5 = Marino Júnior | first5 = R. | title = Recovery from Duret hemorrhage: a rare complication after craniotomy--case report. | journal = Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo) | volume = 40 | issue = 10 | pages = 508-10 | month = Oct | year = 2000 | doi =  | PMID = 11098635 }}</ref>
*Often fatal.<ref name=pmid11098635>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Fujimoto | first1 = Y. | last2 = Aguiar | first2 = PH. | last3 = Freitas | first3 = AB. | last4 = de Andrade | first4 = AF. | last5 = Marino Júnior | first5 = R. | title = Recovery from Duret hemorrhage: a rare complication after craniotomy--case report. | journal = Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo) | volume = 40 | issue = 10 | pages = 508-10 | month = Oct | year = 2000 | doi =  | PMID = 11098635 }}</ref>
===Gross===
====Gross====
*Extravasated blood in midbrain and pons - usu. ventral (anterior) and paramedian (adjacent to the midline).<ref name=pmid11819006/>
*Extravasated blood in midbrain and pons - usu. ventral (anterior) and paramedian (adjacent to the midline).<ref name=pmid11819006/>


Line 343: Line 551:
*[http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/jpeg5/CNS037.jpg Duret hemorrhage (med.utah.edu)].<ref>URL: [http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/EXAM/IMGQUIZ/npfrm.html http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/EXAM/IMGQUIZ/npfrm.html]. Accessed on: 4 December 2011.</ref>
*[http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/jpeg5/CNS037.jpg Duret hemorrhage (med.utah.edu)].<ref>URL: [http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/EXAM/IMGQUIZ/npfrm.html http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/EXAM/IMGQUIZ/npfrm.html]. Accessed on: 4 December 2011.</ref>


===Microscopic===
====Microscopic====
Features:
Features:
*RBC extravasation.  
*RBC extravasation.  
*+/-Hemosiderin-laden macrophages.
*+/-Hemosiderin-laden macrophages.
*+/-Ischemic neurons.
*+/-Ischemic neurons.
===Cerebral amyloid angiopathy===
====General====
*Abbreviated ''CAA''.
*Disease of the old.
*Strong association with ''[[lobar haemorrhage]]'' (bleeds of the cerebellar cortex and cerebral cortex).<ref name=pmid16982664>{{cite journal |author=Thanvi B, Robinson T |title=Sporadic cerebral amyloid angiopathy--an important cause of cerebral haemorrhage in older people |journal=Age Ageing |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=565–71 |year=2006 |month=November |pmid=16982664 |doi=10.1093/ageing/afl108 |url=}}</ref>
Etiology:
*[[Amyloid]] deposition in the basal lamina of smooth muscle (in the cerebellar cortex and cerebral cortex).
====Gross====
*Bleeds typically superficial (cortex and subcortical white matter) and in the frontal lobe or parietal lobe.<ref name=pmid17297004>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Haacke | first1 = EM. | last2 = DelProposto | first2 = ZS. | last3 = Chaturvedi | first3 = S. | last4 = Sehgal | first4 = V. | last5 = Tenzer | first5 = M. | last6 = Neelavalli | first6 = J. | last7 = Kido | first7 = D. | title = Imaging cerebral amyloid angiopathy with susceptibility-weighted imaging. | journal = AJNR Am J Neuroradiol | volume = 28 | issue = 2 | pages = 316-7 | month = Feb | year = 2007 | doi =  | PMID = 17297004 | URL = http://www.ajnr.org/content/28/2/316.long }}</ref>
====Microscopic====
Features:
*Amorphous, acellular eosinophilic material within walls of small arteries.
**This is a high power diagnosis with congo red staining.
Notes:
*Amyloidosis is seen in all individuals with [[Alzheimer's disease]]; the amount of amyloid is what differs -- in CAA it is lots and lots.
*The white matter is typically spared by CAA.<ref name=pmid19225408>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Schröder | first1 = R. | last2 = Deckert | first2 = M. | last3 = Linke | first3 = RP. | title = Novel isolated cerebral ALlambda amyloid angiopathy with widespread subcortical distribution and leukoencephalopathy due to atypical monoclonal plasma cell proliferation, and terminal systemic gammopathy. | journal = J Neuropathol Exp Neurol | volume = 68 | issue = 3 | pages = 286-99 | month = Mar | year = 2009 | doi = 10.1097/NEN.0b013e31819a87f9 | PMID = 19225408 }}
</ref>
====Images====
<gallery>
Image:Cerebral_amyloid_angiopathy_-_very_high_mag.jpg |CAA - congo red - very high mag. (WC)
Image:Cerebral_amyloid_angiopathy_-_low_mag.jpg |CAA - congo red - low mag. (WC)
Image:Cerebral_amyloid_angiopathy_-2b-_amyloid_beta_-_high_mag.jpg |CAA - beta-amyloid - high mag. (WC)
</gallery>
====Stains====
*[[Congo red]].
====IHC====
*Abeta-amyloid (AKA beta-amyloid).
===Cerebral amyloid angiopathy associated with inflammation (I-CAA)===
* Cognitive decline.
* Microbleedings in MRI.
* Responsive to steroids.
* Abeta deposits in vessels.
* Perivascular lymphocytic infiltrate (but no vasculitis!).
* Giant cells may be present.
===Vascular malformations===
{{Main|Vascular malformations}}
Types:<ref name=pmid17076525>{{cite journal |author=Prayson RA, Kleinschmidt-DeMasters BK |title=An algorithmic approach to the brain biopsy--part II |journal=Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med. |volume=130 |issue=11 |pages=1639–48 |year=2006 |month=November |pmid=17076525 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
*[[Vascular_malformations#Arteriovenous_malformation|Arteriovenous malformation]].
*Varix.
*Venous angioma.
*[[Vascular_malformations#Cavernous_hemangioma|Cavernous hemangioma]]  (Cavernoma).
*Capillary teleangiectasia.
Also see: ''[[Sturge-Weber syndrome]]''.
===Atherosclerosis===
{{Main|Vascular_disease#Atherosclerosis}}
*Intracranial atherosclerosis most common at circle of Willis.
*Macroscopic yellow discoloration.
*Luminal stenosis and eccentric intimal thickening.
<gallery>
File:Carotid Plaque (121061911).jpg|Plaque of the carotid bifurcation (Ed Uthman).
</gallery>
===Other large arterial diseases===
*[[Vascular_disease#Fibromuscular_dysplasia|Fibromuscular dysplasia]].
*Moyamoya disease.
**Progressive stenosis of basal intracranial arteries and abnormal vascularization.
*[[Aortic dissection|Arterial dissection]].
*[[Giant cell arteritis]].
*[[Takayasu's arteritis]].
*[[Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome|Antiphospholipid antibody]] mediated thrombosis.
===Microangiopathy===
*Defined as Small vessel disease (<300µm in transverse section).
*Includes atherosclerosis and cerebral amyloid angiopathy.
Other causes:
*Primary angitis of the CNS (PACNS).
*[[Polyarteritis nodosa]].
*[[Granulomatosis with polyangiitis]] (Wegener's granulomatosis).
*[[Lymphomatoid granulomatosis]].
*Cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy (commonly abbreviated ''CADASIL'').
{{Main|Cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy}}
===Hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy===
*Abbreviated ''HIE''.
{{Main|Hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy}}
**Hypoxia: reduction in oxygen supply or utilization.
**Ischemia: reduction in blood supply.
===Cerebrovascular accident===
*Abbreviated ''CVA''.
*[[AKA]] ''stroke''.
{{Main|Cerebrovascular accident}}
*Stroke includes:
**Infarction (ischemia in defined vascular distribution persisting for at least 24hrs).
**Intracrebral hemorrhage (focal blood accumulation in the brain parenchyma).
**Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH).
**Cerebral venous thrombosis (CVT).


==Alcohol & CNS==
==Alcohol & CNS==
Line 376: Line 682:
General:
General:
*Due to thiamine deficiency.
*Due to thiamine deficiency.
**Malnourishment often accompanies [[alcoholism]].


Features:
Features:<ref name=pmid3929155>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Torvik | first1 = A. | title = Two types of brain lesions in Wernicke's encephalopathy. | journal = Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol | volume = 11 | issue = 3 | pages = 179-90 | month =  | year =  | doi =  | PMID = 3929155 }}</ref>
*Neurons preserved - '''key'''.
*Neurons of mammillary bodies preserved - '''key'''.
*Loss of myelin.
*Loss of myelin.
*Hemorrhage.
*Hemorrhage.
*Spongiosis.
*Edema.
*Reactive blood vessels.
*Reactive blood vessels.


Note:
*The thalamus and inferior olives show neuronal loss.<ref name=pmid3929155/>


====Common non-specific findings====
====Common non-specific findings====
Line 398: Line 707:
*+/-Decreased level of consciousness.
*+/-Decreased level of consciousness.


Etiology:
CSF findings:
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Type
! Glucose
! Protein
! Cells
! Cytopathology
|-
| Bacterial, acute
| low
| high
| neutrophils
| [[File:Purulent_CSF.jpg|100px|center|]][[CSF_cytopathology#Acute_bacterial_meningitis|Cytophathology]]
|-
| Viral
| normal
| slight elevation
| lymphocytes
| [[CSF_cytopathology#Viral_meningitis|Cytophathology]]
|}
 
 
 
====Etiology====
*Infectious.
*Infectious.
**Bacterial.
**Bacterial.
Line 406: Line 738:
*Toxic.
*Toxic.
*Aseptic - see ''[[Mollaret's meningitis]]''.
*Aseptic - see ''[[Mollaret's meningitis]]''.
Bacterial meningitis - most probably cause by age:<ref>{{Ref PCPBoD8|666-7}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Age
! Organism
|-
| Neonate
| ''Escherichia coli'', ''Group B Streptococcus''
|-
| Infants, children
| ''Streptococcus pneumoniae''
|-
| Adolescents, young adults
| ''Neisseria meningitidis''
|-
| Elderly
| ''Streptococcus pneumoniae'', ''Listeria monocytogenes''
|}


===Gross===
===Gross===
Line 414: Line 764:
*+/-Cerebral edema.
*+/-Cerebral edema.


Image:
====Image====
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Streptococcus_pneumoniae_meningitis,_gross_pathology_33_lores.jpg Meningitis (WP)].
<gallery>
Image:Streptococcus_pneumoniae_meningitis,_gross_pathology_33_lores.jpg | Streptococcus Meningitis. (WC/Dr. Edwin P. Ewing, Jr.)
File:Haemophilus influenzae meningitis 5003 lores.jpg | Hemophilus influenza Meningitis. (WC/CDC)
File:Pneumococcal meningitis.jpg | Pneumococcus Meningitis. (WC/Dr. Yale Rosen)
File:Meningitis-MRI.JPG | Bacterial Meningitis MRI (WC/MBq)
</gallery>


===Microscopic===
===Microscopic===
Features:
Features:
*Inflammation of the meninges.
*Inflammation of the meninges:
*Infectious meningitis:
**+/-[[Neutrophil]]s.
**Microorganisms (bacteria, [[fungi]]).
**+/-Lymphocytes.
**+/-[[Plasma cell]]s.
*+/-Microorganisms (infectious meningitis):  
**Bacteria.
**[[Fungi]], e.g. [[aspergillosis]] (may be intravascular).
 
Main DDx:
*[[Lymphoma]].
 
====Image====
<gallery>
Image:Meningitis_Histopathology.jpg | Bacterial meningitis. (WC/Marvin101)
</gallery>


==Cerebral abscess==
==Cerebral abscess==
Line 438: Line 805:
==Neurodegenerative diseases==
==Neurodegenerative diseases==
{{Main|Neurodegenerative diseases}}
{{Main|Neurodegenerative diseases}}
This is a hueueuge topic.  It is covered its own article and includes a general discussion of dementia.
This is a hueueuge topic.  It is covered in its own article and includes a general discussion of dementia.


==Epilepsy==
==Malformation of cortical development(MCD) ==
{{Main|Epilepsy}}
===Lissencephaly===
* Greek: ‘lissos': smooth and ‘enkephalos': brain.
* Absent (agyria) or decreased (pachygyria) convolutions.
* Cortical thickening
* Smooth cerebral surface
* Subtypes with different layering: 2-layered, 3-layered, and 4-layered forms.
* Heterotopic neurons in a pattern suggestive of laminar organization.
* 14 LIS mutations account for 90% of all cases.<ref name="pmid27781032">{{cite journal |authors=Parrini E, Conti V, Dobyns WB, Guerrini R |title=Genetic Basis of Brain Malformations |journal=Mol Syndromol |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=220–233 |date=September 2016 |pmid=27781032 |pmc=5073505 |doi=10.1159/000448639 |url=}}</ref>


==Cerebrovascular accident==
===Polymicrogyria===
*Abbreviated ''CVA''.  
* Abnormal cortical lamination.
*[[AKA]] ''stroke''.
* Abnormally small and partly fused gyri.
* Can be unilateral, bilateral and symmetrical.
* Intellectual disability.
* Sometimes severe encephalopathy.
* Pharmacoresistant epilepsy
* Cortical lamination can be unlayered or four-layered.
** Unlayered:  Unorganized radial distribution of neurons.
** Four-layered:  Molecular layer, outer neuronal layer, nerve fiber layer, and inner neuronal layer.
* 1q trisomy in unilateral cases.<ref name="pmid32979071">{{cite journal |authors=Kobow K, Jabari S, Pieper T, Kudernatsch M, Polster T, Woermann FG, Kalbhenn T, Hamer H, Rössler K, Mühlebner A, Spliet WGM, Feucht M, Hou Y, Stichel D, Korshunov A, Sahm F, Coras R, Blümcke I, von Deimling A |title=Mosaic trisomy of chromosome 1q in human brain tissue associates with unilateral polymicrogyria, very early-onset focal epilepsy, and severe developmental delay |journal=Acta Neuropathol |volume=140 |issue=6 |pages=881–891 |date=December 2020 |pmid=32979071 |doi=10.1007/s00401-020-02228-5 |url=}}</ref>


===General===
==Epilepsy==
*Very common.
{{Main|Epilepsy}}
*Leading cause of morbidity and mortality.
===Focal cortical dysplasia (FCD)===
*Localized malformations of the cortex.
*Frequently associated with epilepsy in children.
*Includes cortical dyslamination, cytoarchitectural changes and white matter abnormalities.
*Current consensus: ILAE classification scheme 2011 <ref>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Blümcke | first1 = I. | last2 = Aronica | first2 = E. | last3 = Miyata | first3 = H. | last4 = Sarnat | first4 = HB. | last5 = Thom | first5 = M. | last6 = Roessler | first6 = K. | last7 = Rydenhag | first7 = B. | last8 = Jehi | first8 = L. | last9 = Krsek | first9 = P. | title = International recommendation for a comprehensive neuropathologic workup of epilepsy surgery brain tissue: A consensus Task Force report from the ILAE Commission on Diagnostic Methods. | journal = Epilepsia | volume = 57 | issue = 3 | pages = 348-58 | month = Mar | year = 2016 | doi = 10.1111/epi.13319 | PMID = 26839983 }}
</ref>(based on previous classification by Palmini 2004):


Clinical classification:
# Hemorrhagic stroke.
# Ischemic stroke.


===Gross===
*Type I FCD (focal)
*Soft/mushy brain.
**Ia: Abnormal radial cortical lamination.
*Older infarcts.
**Ib: Abnormal tangential cortical lamination.
**A "roof" is present - a thin submeningeal layer is preserved by the CSF.<ref>MUN. 16 December 2009.</ref>
**Ic: Abnormal radial and tangential cortical lamination.
***"Roof" is absent in trauma.
**Cavity - in older infarcts.
***''[[Multiple sclerosis]]'' does not cavitate.
*Laminar necrosis = (thin) chalky line replaces grey mater.<ref>URL: [http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/jty1/neurotest/Q03-Ans.htm http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/jty1/neurotest/Q03-Ans.htm]. Accessed on: 26 October 2010.</ref>
**[[AKA]] ''pseudolaminar necrosis'' - as it is not localized to a specific layer of the cortex.<ref>MUN. 26 November 2010.</ref>


===Microscopic===
Features:
*Ischemic neurons.
*+/-Neuronal loss.
*+/-Microglial.
*+/-[[Thrombosis]].
*+/-[[Atherosclerosis]].


==Hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy==
*Type II FCD (focal)
*Abbreviated ''HIE''.
**IIa: Presence of dysmorphic neurons.
===General===
**IIb: Presence of dysmorphic neurons and balloon cells.
*Often due to ''cardiac arrest'', i.e. global ischemia.
*Triple watershed area = parieto-occipital cortex, extrastriate occipital cortex.


Note:
*''Hypoxia'' = blood decreased oxygen carrying capacity,<ref name=Ref_PCPBoD8_10>{{Ref PCPBoD8|10}}</ref> e.g. [[anemia]].
*''Ischemia'' = decreased blood flow.<ref name=Ref_PCPBoD8_10>{{Ref PCPBoD8|10}}</ref>
*Either ''or'' both = less oxygen delivery to tissue.
===Microscopic===
Features:
*Hippocampal ischemic changes (in adults):
**Loss of neurons in CA1, CA3 and CA4 +/- "cavitation".
***Neuronal loss: No blue (nuclei) where there should be some.
***Cavitation: bubbles/clear spaces where there should be none.
**CA2 neurons preserved/resistant.
*Purkinje cell loss in the cerebellum and [[Bergmann gliosis]].
*"Anoxic neurons".<ref>URL: [http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter2/chapter2aHIE.html http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter2/chapter2aHIE.html]. Accessed on: 12 July 2010.</ref>
**Shrunken neurons with intensely eosinophilic cytoplasm and pyknotic (shrunken) nuclei.
*Pseudolaminar necrosis - (uncontrolled) cell death in the cerebral cortex in a band-like pattern,<ref>Hypoxic and Ischemic Encephalopathy. neuropathology.neoucom.edu. Accessed on: 29 December 2010.</ref> with a relative preservation of cells immediately adjacent to the meninges.


Images:
*Type III FCD (associated with other lesion)
*Anoxic neurons:
**IIIa: FCD associated with [[Epilepsy#Hippocampal_sclerosis|hippocampal sclerosis]].
**[http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter2/images2/2-1HIE.jpg Anoxic neurons (neuropathologyweb.org)].
**IIIb: FCD adjacent to a brain tumor.
**[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Alzheimer_type_II_astrocyte_high_mag_cropped.jpg Anoxic neurons (WC)].
**IIIc: FCD adjacent to vascular malformation.
**[http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/iacp-olp/APAQ-Images/N1-MS-01-16.gif Anoxic neurons (ouhsc.edu)].<ref>URL: [http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/iacp-olp/apaq-text/N1-MS-01-16-Ans.htm http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/iacp-olp/apaq-text/N1-MS-01-16-Ans.htm] and [http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/iacp-olp/apaq-text/n1-ms-01.htm http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/iacp-olp/apaq-text/n1-ms-01.htm]. Accessed on: 31 October 2010.</ref>
**IIIc: FCD associated with previous injury (trauma, inflammation...).
*Hippocampal ischemic changes:
**[http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter2/images2/2-hippoHIE.jpg Hippocampus in HIE (neuropathologyweb.org)].<ref>URL: [http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter2/chapter2aHIE.html http://www.neuropathologyweb.org/chapter2/chapter2aHIE.html]. Accessed on: 14 January 2011.</ref>
*Pseudolaminar necrosis:
**[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cortical_pseudolaminar_necrosis_-_lfb_-_very_low_mag.jpg Pseudolaminar necrosis - very low mag. (WC)].
**[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cortical_pseudolaminar_necrosis_-_lfb_-_intermed_mag.jpg Pseudolaminar necrosis - intermed. mag. (WC)].


Notes:
*Neurons of ''subiculum'' in adults - usu. normal (as they are resistant to ischemic changes).


==Multiple sclerosis==
<gallery>
*Abbreviated ''MS''.
File:FCDIIa dysmorphic neurons HE.jpg|Dysmorphic neurons in FCD (HE)
===General===
File:FCDIIa neuronal heterotopia neun.jpg|Heterotopic neurons (NeuN)
*A bread 'n butter disease of neurology in Canada.
</gallery>


Clinical:
===Hamartia===
*CSF: oligoclonal bands of immunoglobulin.<ref>{{Ref PBoD8|1311}}</ref>
* Small collection of ectopic glioneuronal cells.
**Morpholology resembling oligodendroglial-like cells. <ref>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Kasper | first1 = BS. | last2 = Stefan | first2 = H. | last3 = Buchfelder | first3 = M. | last4 = Paulus | first4 = W. | title = Temporal lobe microdysgenesis in epilepsy versus control brains. | journal = J Neuropathol Exp Neurol | volume = 58 | issue = 1 | pages = 22-8 | month = Jan | year = 1999 | doi =  | PMID = 10068310 }}</ref>
* Mostly amygdala, less common in hippocampus or temporal lobe.
* Can coexist with focal cortical dysplasia.


===Radiologic/Gross===
==Demyelination==
Features:<ref>URL: [http://library.med.utah.edu/kw/ms/path.html http://library.med.utah.edu/kw/ms/path.html]. Accessed on: 12 July 2010.</ref>
*White matter lesions.
**Cerebrum (classically): periventricular distribution.
**Optic nerves (optic neuritis) - classic presentation.


===Microscopic===
===Multiple sclerosis===
Features:<ref>URL: [http://library.med.utah.edu/kw/ms/path.html http://library.med.utah.edu/kw/ms/path.html]. Accessed on: 12 July 2010.</ref>
*Abbreviated ''MS''.
*Perivascular inflammation.
{{Main|Multiple sclerosis}}
*Demyelination.
**Subcortical myelinated fibers are often spared.


Classification of MS lesions:
===Osmotic demyelination syndrome===
*Early active.
{{Main|Osmotic demyelination syndrome}}
*Inactive.
*Previously known as ''central pontine myelinolysis'' (abbreviated ''CPM'').
*Early remyelinating.
*Late remyelinating.


DDx:
===Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis===
*[[ADEM]].
*Abbreviated ''ADEM''.
*[[Neuromyelitis optica]].
{{Main|Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis}}
*[[Lymphoma]].
*[[Diffuse astrocytoma]].


Images:
===Neuromyelitis optica===
*[http://path.upmc.edu/cases/case79.html Multiple sclerosis masquerading as a diffuse astrocytoma - several images (upmc.edu)].
*Abbreviated ''NMO''.
*[http://path.upmc.edu/cases/case636.html Tumefactive multiple sclerosis - several images (upmc.edu)].


===IHC===
General:
*HAM-56 - macrophages.
*Rare autoimmune disease - once considered a variant of [[multiple sclerosis]].
*CD8 - lymphocytes.
**Autoantibodies directed at aquaporin-4.<ref name=pmid22087205>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Kim | first1 = W. | last2 = Kim | first2 = SH. | last3 = Kim | first3 = HJ. | title = New insights into neuromyelitis optica. | journal = J Clin Neurol | volume = 7 | issue = 3 | pages = 115-27 | month = Sep | year = 2011 | doi = 10.3988/jcn.2011.7.3.115 | PMID = 22087205 }}</ref>


==Cerebral amyloid angiopathy==
Diagnosis:
===General===
*NMO-IgG.
*Abbreviated ''CAA''.
*Disease of the old.
*Strong association with ''[[lobar haemorrhage]]''.<ref name=pmid16982664>{{cite journal |author=Thanvi B, Robinson T |title=Sporadic cerebral amyloid angiopathy--an important cause of cerebral haemorrhage in older people |journal=Age Ageing |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=565–71 |year=2006 |month=November |pmid=16982664 |doi=10.1093/ageing/afl108 |url=}}</ref>
**Cerebellar cortex.
**Cerebral cortex.


Etiology:
Clinical - preferentially:
*[[Amyloid]] deposition in the basal lamina of smooth muscle (in the cerebellar cortex and cerebral cortex).
*Eye (optic neuritis).
*Spinal cord (myelitis).


===Microscopic===
Microscopic:
Features:
*Inflammation - lymphocytes, macrophages.
*Amorphous, acellular eosinophilic material within walls of small arteries.
*Reactive astrocytes.
**This is a high power diagnosis with congo red staining.
 
Notes:
*Amyloidosis is seen in all individuals with [[Alzheimer's disease]]; the amount of amyloid is what differs -- in CAA it is lots and lots.
*The white matter is typically spared by CAA.<ref name=pmid19225408>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Schröder | first1 = R. | last2 = Deckert | first2 = M. | last3 = Linke | first3 = RP. | title = Novel isolated cerebral ALlambda amyloid angiopathy with widespread subcortical distribution and leukoencephalopathy due to atypical monoclonal plasma cell proliferation, and terminal systemic gammopathy. | journal = J Neuropathol Exp Neurol | volume = 68 | issue = 3 | pages = 286-99 | month = Mar | year = 2009 | doi = 10.1097/NEN.0b013e31819a87f9 | PMID = 19225408 }}
</ref>


Images:
Images:
*[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cerebral_amyloid_angiopathy_-_very_high_mag.jpg CAA - congo red - very high mag. (WC)].
*[http://path.upmc.edu/cases/case637.html Neuromyelitis optica - several images (upmc.edu)].
*[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cerebral_amyloid_angiopathy_-_low_mag.jpg CAA - congo red - low mag. (WC)].
*[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cerebral_amyloid_angiopathy_-2b-_amyloid_beta_-_high_mag.jpg CAA - beta-amyloid - high mag. (WC)].


===Stains===
IHC:
*[[Congo red]].
*Mixed lymphocyte population with CD3 > CD20.
*Aquaporin-4 loss.


===IHC===
===Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy===
*Abeta-amyloid (AKA beta-amyloid).
*Abbreviated ''PML''.
{{Main|Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy}}


==Central pontine myelinolysis==
*Abbreviated ''CPM''.
*[[AKA]] ''pontine myelinolysis''.
===General===
*Classically in the pons, ergo "pontine" is in the name.
*Classically midline, ergo "central" is in the name.
**May occur elsewhere -- known as ''extrapontine myelinolysis''.


Etiology:
*Rapid correction of hyponatremia.<ref name=pmid22080394>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Chang | first1 = Y. | last2 = An | first2 = DH. | last3 = Xing | first3 = Y. | last4 = Qi | first4 = X. | title = Central pontine and extrapontine myelinolysis associated with acute hepatic dysfunction. | journal = Neurol Sci | volume =  | issue =  | pages =  | month = Nov | year = 2011 | doi = 10.1007/s10072-011-0838-3 | PMID = 22080394 }}</ref>
*Tacrolimus post-liver transplant.<ref name=pmid21959523>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Fukazawa | first1 = K. | last2 = Nishida | first2 = S. | last3 = Aguina | first3 = L. | last4 = Pretto | first4 = E. | title = Central pontine myelinolysis (CPM) associated with tacrolimus (FK506) after liver transplantation. | journal = Ann Transplant | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 139-42 | month = Sep | year = 2011 | doi =  | PMID = 21959523 }}</ref>
*Associated with alcoholism and malnourishment.
Clinical:<ref>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Lai | first1 = CC. | last2 = Tan | first2 = CK. | last3 = Lin | first3 = SH. | last4 = Chen | first4 = HW. | title = Central pontine myelinolysis. | journal = CMAJ | volume = 183 | issue = 9 | pages = E605 | month = Jun | year = 2011 | doi = 10.1503/cmaj.090186 | PMID = 21543311 | PMC = 3114939 | URL = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3114939/?tool=pubmed }}</ref>
*Decreased level of consciousness - most common.
*Quadriplegia.
*Poor prognosis.
===Microscopic===
Features:<ref name=npw_ch6>URL: [http://neuropathology-web.org/chapter6/chapter6dCPM.html http://neuropathology-web.org/chapter6/chapter6dCPM.html]. Accessed on: 20 December 2011.</ref>
*Myelin loss.
*No inflammation.
*Relative preservation of neurons.
Images:
*[http://neuropathology-web.org/chapter6/images6/6-9l.jpg CPM (neuropathology-web.org)].<ref name=npw_ch6>URL: [http://neuropathology-web.org/chapter6/chapter6dCPM.html http://neuropathology-web.org/chapter6/chapter6dCPM.html]. Accessed on: 20 December 2011.</ref>
*[http://dartmed.dartmouth.edu/spring09/html/virtual_microscopy_we/ CPM (dartmouth.edu)].
==Vascular malformations==
{{Main|Vascular malformations}}
Types:<ref name=pmid17076525>{{cite journal |author=Prayson RA, Kleinschmidt-DeMasters BK |title=An algorithmic approach to the brain biopsy--part II |journal=Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med. |volume=130 |issue=11 |pages=1639–48 |year=2006 |month=November |pmid=17076525 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
#Arteriovenous malformation.
#*Most important clinically - highest risk of bleeding.
#Varix.
#*One large (dilated) vein.
#Venous angioma.
#*Many small veins.
#Caverous malformation.
#*Vessels are back-to-back (no intervening parenchyma).
Also see: ''[[Sturge-Weber syndrome]]''.


=Cysts=
=Cysts=
Line 638: Line 928:
**... think of ovarian dermoid.
**... think of ovarian dermoid.
*Epidermoid cyst.
*Epidermoid cyst.
*Choriod cyst.
*Choroid plexus cyst.
*Neuroenteric cyst.
*Neuroenteric cyst.
**Foregut cyst with connection to dura.<ref>URL: [http://bhj.org/journal/2003_4502_april/neurentericcyst_373.htm http://bhj.org/journal/2003_4502_april/neurentericcyst_373.htm]. Accessed on: 19 December 2011.</ref>
**Foregut cyst with connection to dura.<ref>URL: [http://bhj.org/journal/2003_4502_april/neurentericcyst_373.htm http://bhj.org/journal/2003_4502_april/neurentericcyst_373.htm]. Accessed on: 19 December 2011.</ref>
Line 644: Line 934:
***Usually seen with vertebral anomalies.  
***Usually seen with vertebral anomalies.  
*Epithelial cyst.
*Epithelial cyst.
*Cyst with a mural nodule tumor of the brain.
**Commonly seen in: <ref>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Raz | first1 = E. | last2 = Zagzag | first2 = D. | last3 = Saba | first3 = L. | last4 = Mannelli | first4 = L. | last5 = Di Paolo | first5 = PL. | last6 = D'Ambrosio | first6 = F. | last7 = Knopp | first7 = E. | title = Cyst with a mural nodule tumor of the brain. | journal = Cancer Imaging | volume = 12 | issue =  | pages = 237-44 | month = Aug | year = 2012 | doi = 10.1102/1470-7330.2012.0028 | PMID = 22935908 }}</ref>
**[[Hemangioblastoma]]
**[[Craniopharyngioma]]
**[[Ganglioglioma]]
*Others.
*Others.


Line 653: Line 948:


===Gross===
===Gross===
*Classically in the third ventricle.
*Fluid filled cyst - classically in the third ventricle.
 
====Images====
<gallery>
Image:Human brain showning a colloid cyst in the third ventricle.jpg| Colloid cyst at autopsy. (Shaktawat ''et al.''<ref name=pmid16867192>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Shaktawat | first1 = SS. | last2 = Salman | first2 = WD. | last3 = Twaij | first3 = Z. | last4 = Al-Dawoud | first4 = A. | title = Unexpected death after headache due to a colloid cyst of the third ventricle. | journal = World J Surg Oncol | volume = 4 | issue =  | pages = 47 | month =  | year = 2006 | doi = 10.1186/1477-7819-4-47 | PMID = 16867192 }}</ref>)
</gallery>
www:
*[http://www.ajnr.org/content/21/8/1470/F3.expansion.html Colloid cyst of third ventricle (ajnr.org)].<ref name=pmid11003281/>


===Microscopic===
===Microscopic===
Line 659: Line 961:
*Simple epithelium with ciliated cells and goblet cells.
*Simple epithelium with ciliated cells and goblet cells.


Images:
====Images====
*[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Colloid_Cyst_HE_40x.jpg Colloid cyst (WC)].
<gallery>
Image:Colloid_Cyst_HE_40x.jpg | Colloid cyst. (WC)
</gallery>
www:
*[http://www.ajnr.org/content/21/8/1470/F4.expansion.html Colloid cyst (ajnr.org)].<ref name=pmid11003281/>
*[http://www.ajnr.org/content/21/8/1470/F4.expansion.html Colloid cyst (ajnr.org)].<ref name=pmid11003281/>


=Paediatric pathology=
=Paediatric pathology=
===Joubert syndrome===
==Kernicterus==
*Malformation of the cerebellar vermis.<ref name=ninds_joubert>[http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/joubert/joubert.htm http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/joubert/joubert.htm]</ref>
 
===Epidemiology===
*Autosomal recessive - mutation in a number of genes including NPHP1, AHI1, and CEP290.<ref name=ninds_joubert/>
 
=Weird stuff=
==Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis==
*Abbreviated ''ADEM''.
===General===
===General===
*Thought to be autoimmune; often associated with/preceded by by viral illness.<ref name=pmid17438235>{{cite journal |author=Tenembaum S, Chitnis T, Ness J, Hahn JS |title=Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis |journal=Neurology |volume=68 |issue=16 Suppl 2 |pages=S23–36 |year=2007 |month=April |pmid=17438235 |doi=10.1212/01.wnl.0000259404.51352.7f |url=}}</ref>
*Due to hyperbilirubinemia.<ref name=pmid7063283>{{Cite journal | last1 = Turkel | first1 = SB. | last2 = Miller | first2 = CA. | last3 = Guttenberg | first3 = ME. | last4 = Moynes | first4 = DR. | last5 = Godgman | first5 = JE. | title = A clinical pathologic reappraisal of kernicterus. | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 69 | issue = 3 | pages = 267-72 | month = Mar | year = 1982 | doi = | PMID = 7063283 }}</ref>
*May mimic [[multiple sclerosis]].


Treatment:
===Gross===
*Steroids.
*Yellow staining:<ref name=npw>URL: [http://neuropathology-web.org/chapter3/chapter3eBilirubinencephalopathy.html http://neuropathology-web.org/chapter3/chapter3eBilirubinencephalopathy.html]. Accessed on: 30 May 2012.</ref>  
*Plasmapheresis.
**Basal ganglia.<ref name=pmid10920171>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Hansen | first1 = TW. | last2 = Hervieux | first2 = JF. | last3 = Orth | first3 = J. | last4 = Schmorl | first4 = CG. | last5 = Baumes | first5 = JB. | title = Pioneers in the scientific study of neonatal jaundice and kernicterus. | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 106 | issue = 2 | pages = E15 | month = Aug | year = 2000 | doi = | PMID = 10920171 }}</ref>
 
**Hippocampus.<ref name=pmid15091133>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Paksoy | first1 = Y. | last2 = Koç | first2 = H. | last3 = Genç | first3 = BO. | title = Bilateral mesial temporal sclerosis and kernicterus. | journal = J Comput Assist Tomogr | volume = 28 | issue = 2 | pages = 269-72 | month = | year = | doi = | PMID = 15091133 }}</ref>
Diagnosis:
**Subthalamic nucleus.
*Need to r/o infection (with lumbar puncture).
*No old plaques on imaging (MRI).
 
An acute form exists known as ''acute hemorrhagic leukoencephalitis''<ref>URL: [http://path.upmc.edu/cases/case102/dx.html http://path.upmc.edu/cases/case102/dx.html]. Accessed on: 2 January 2012.</ref> (AKA ''acute necrotizing hemorrhagic encephalomyelitis'').
 
===Microscopic===
Features:<ref>{{Ref PBoD8|1312}}</ref>
*Myelin loss with sparing of axons.
*Inflammation:
**Early: neutrophils.
**Late: mononuclear cells (lymphocytes, plasma cells).
*Lipid-laden macrophages.
 
DDx:
*[[Multiple sclerosis]].
**Age of the lesions differ.
*Acute necrotizing hemorrhagic encephalomyelitis (ANHE) - if one considers this a separate entity.
*Acute necrotizing encephalopathy.<ref>URL: [http://path.upmc.edu/cases/case619/dx.html http://path.upmc.edu/cases/case619/dx.html]. Accessed on: 26 January 2012.</ref>
 
==Neuromyelitis optica==
*Abbreviated ''NMO''.
===General===
*Rare autoimmune disease - once considered a variant of [[multiple sclerosis]].
**Autoantibodies directed at aquaporin-4.<ref name=pmid22087205>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Kim | first1 = W. | last2 = Kim | first2 = SH. | last3 = Kim | first3 = HJ. | title = New insights into neuromyelitis optica. | journal = J Clin Neurol | volume = 7 | issue = 3 | pages = 115-27 | month = Sep | year = 2011 | doi = 10.3988/jcn.2011.7.3.115 | PMID = 22087205 }}</ref>
 
Diagnosis:
*NMO-IgG.
 
Clinical - preferentially:
*Eye (optic neuritis).
*Spinal cord (myelitis).
 
===Microscopic===
Features:
*Inflammation - lymphocytes, macrophages.
*Reactive astrocytes.
 
Images:
*[http://path.upmc.edu/cases/case637.html Neuromyelitis optica - several images (upmc.edu)].
 
===IHC===
*Mixed lymphocyte population with CD3 > CD20.
*Aquaporin-4 loss.
 
==Cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy==
*Commonly abbreviated ''CADASIL''.
===General===
*Autosomal dominant disorder - as the name implies.<ref name=pmid19174371>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Tikka | first1 = S. | last2 = Mykkänen | first2 = K. | last3 = Ruchoux | first3 = MM. | last4 = Bergholm | first4 = R. | last5 = Junna | first5 = M. | last6 = Pöyhönen | first6 = M. | last7 = Yki-Järvinen | first7 = H. | last8 = Joutel | first8 = A. | last9 = Viitanen | first9 = M. | title = Congruence between NOTCH3 mutations and GOM in 131 CADASIL patients. | journal = Brain | volume = 132 | issue = Pt 4 | pages = 933-9 | month = Apr | year = 2009 | doi = 10.1093/brain/awn364 | PMID = 19174371 }}
</ref>
*Causes strokes in 40-50 year-old.
*Cerebral microbleeds - common.
**Associated with increased risk of [[intracerebral hemorrhage]].<ref name=pmid17135568>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Choi | first1 = JC. | last2 = Kang | first2 = SY. | last3 = Kang | first3 = JH. | last4 = Park | first4 = JK. | title = Intracerebral hemorrhages in CADASIL. | journal = Neurology | volume = 67 | issue = 11 | pages = 2042-4 | month = Dec | year = 2006 | doi = 10.1212/01.wnl.0000246601.70918.06 | PMID = 17135568 }}</ref>
*Characteristic MRI findings - present in asymptomatic individuals with mutation.
*Increased risk of [[heart|myocardial infarction]].<ref name=pmid12861102>{{cite journal |author=Lesnik Oberstein SA, Jukema JW, Van Duinen SG, ''et al.'' |title=Myocardial infarction in cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy (CADASIL) |journal=Medicine (Baltimore) |volume=82 |issue=4 |pages=251–6 |year=2003 |month=July |pmid=12861102 |doi=10.1097/01.md.0000085054.63483.40 |url=}}</ref>


Note:
Note:
*There is also an autosomal recessive form - CARASIL.<ref name=pmid21215656>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Fukutake | first1 = T. | title = Cerebral autosomal recessive arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy (CARASIL): from discovery to gene identification. | journal = J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis | volume = 20 | issue = 2 | pages = 85-93 | month =  | year =  | doi = 10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2010.11.008 | PMID = 21215656 }}</ref>
*May not be specific.<ref name=pmid7063283/>  
====Etiology====
*Mutation of ''Notch 3'' gene.<ref name=pmid15537516>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Kalaria | first1 = RN. | last2 = Viitanen | first2 = M. | last3 = Kalimo | first3 = H. | last4 = Dichgans | first4 = M. | last5 = Tabira | first5 = T. | title = The pathogenesis of CADASIL: an update. | journal = J Neurol Sci | volume = 226 | issue = 1-2 | pages = 35-9 | month = Nov | year = 2004 | doi = 10.1016/j.jns.2004.09.008 | PMID = 15537516 }}</ref>
**Diagnosis: proven ''Notch 3'' mutation.


===Microscopic===
Image:
Features:
*[http://www.flickr.com/photos/neonatal-box/6275988844/ Kernicterus (flickr.com)].
*+/-Subcortical infarcts.
**Patches of (non-myelinated) tissue within the white matter deep to the cortex with abundant macrophages.
*Blood vessels typically have a basophilic granularity.<ref name=pmid17076524>{{cite journal |author=Kleinschmidt-DeMasters BK, Prayson RA |title=An algorithmic approach to the brain biopsy--part I |journal=Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med. |volume=130 |issue=11 |pages=1630–8 |year=2006 |month=November |pmid=17076524 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
 
====IHC====
*Notch 3: smooth muscle and pericytes punctate +ve.<ref name=pmid12861102/>
 
Image: [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:CADASIL_-_very_high_mag.jpg Notch 3 staining in CADASIL (WC)].
 
Notes:
*No cortical involvement -- this is unlike ''multiple sclerosis''.
 
DDx:
*[[Amyloidosis]].
*[[Binswanger's disease]] - multi-infarct dementia affecting subcortical white matter.
**Often diagnosed as ''Alzheimer's disease'' in the past.
 
====Skin biopsy diagnosis====
*Can be diagnosed on a skin biopsy.<ref name=pmid11755616 >{{cite journal |author=Joutel A, Favrole P, Labauge P, ''et al.'' |title=Skin biopsy immunostaining with a Notch3 monoclonal antibody for CADASIL diagnosis |journal=Lancet |volume=358 |issue=9298 |pages=2049–51 |year=2001 |month=December |pmid=11755616 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(01)07142-2 |url=}}</ref>
 
===Electron microscopy===
*Granular osmiophilic material (GOM).
 
==Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy==
*Abbreviated ''PML''.
===General===
*Caused by ''JC virus'' (a type of [[polyomavirus]]<ref name=pmid21499097>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Berger | first1 = JR. | title = The basis for modeling progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy pathogenesis. | journal = Curr Opin Neurol | volume = 24 | issue = 3 | pages = 262-7 | month = Jun | year = 2011 | doi = 10.1097/WCO.0b013e328346d2a3 | PMID = 21499097 }}</ref>) in the context of immunodeficiency; usu. in the setting of [[HIV]] infection.<ref name=pmid12709870>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Berger | first1 = JR. | title = Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: explaining the high incidence and disproportionate frequency of the illness relative to other immunosuppressive conditions. | journal = J Neurovirol | volume = 9 Suppl 1 | issue =  | pages = 38-41 | month =  | year = 2003 | doi = 10.1080/13550280390195261 | PMID = 12709870 }}</ref>
**Approximately 5% of HIV patients develop PML.<ref name=pmid12709870/>
**Virus destroys oligodendrocytes -> demyelination results.<ref name=pmid21823157>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Mateen | first1 = FJ. | last2 = Muralidharan | first2 = R. | last3 = Carone | first3 = M. | last4 = van de Beek | first4 = D. | last5 = Harrison | first5 = DM. | last6 = Aksamit | first6 = AJ. | last7 = Gould | first7 = MS. | last8 = Clifford | first8 = DB. | last9 = Nath | first9 = A. | title = Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in transplant recipients. | journal = Ann Neurol | volume = 70 | issue = 2 | pages = 305-22 | month = Aug | year = 2011 | doi = 10.1002/ana.22408 | PMID = 21823157 }}
</ref>
*Suspected cases are biopsied - unlike other demyelinating diseases.<ref>URL: [http://path.upmc.edu/cases/case336/dx.html http://path.upmc.edu/cases/case336/dx.html]. Accessed on: 15 January 2012.</ref>
===Gross===
*Multifocal - as the name suggests.


===Microscopic===
===Microscopic===
Features:<ref>URL: [http://path.upmc.edu/cases/case120/dx.html http://path.upmc.edu/cases/case120/dx.html]. Accessed on: 3 January 2012.</ref>
Features - similar to [[HIE]]:<ref name=npw/>
*Perivascular inflammatory cells.
*+/-Red neurons.
*Foamy histiocytes.
*+/-Gliosis.
*Abnormal appearing glial cells:<ref name=uscf_pml>URL: [http://missinglink.ucsf.edu/lm/ids_104_Demyelination/Didactic/Pml.htm http://missinglink.ucsf.edu/lm/ids_104_Demyelination/Didactic/Pml.htm]. Accessed on: 3 January 2012.</ref>  
**Reactive astrocytes.
**Oligodendrocytes with nuclear enlargement and glassy magenta chromatin - '''key feature'''.  
**Atypical mitoses - known as ''[[Creutzfeldt cell]]''.


Images:
==Joubert syndrome==
*[http://path.upmc.edu/cases/case120/micro.html PML - case 1 (upmc.edu)].
*Malformation of the cerebellar vermis.<ref name=ninds_joubert>[http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/joubert/joubert.htm http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/joubert/joubert.htm]</ref>
*[http://path.upmc.edu/cases/case120/dx.html PML - case 1 (upmc.edu)].
*[http://path.upmc.edu/cases/case336/images/fig03.jpg Crutzfeldt cell - case 2 (upmc.edu)].<ref>URL: [http://path.upmc.edu/cases/case336.html http://path.upmc.edu/cases/case336.html]. Accessed on: 15 January 2012.</ref>
*[http://missinglink.ucsf.edu/lm/ids_104_Demyelination/Figures/PMLHandE.jpg PML oligodendrocyte (ucsf.edu)].<ref name=uscf_pml>URL: [http://missinglink.ucsf.edu/lm/ids_104_Demyelination/Didactic/Pml.htm http://missinglink.ucsf.edu/lm/ids_104_Demyelination/Didactic/Pml.htm]. Accessed on: 3 January 2012.</ref>
*[http://neuro.psychiatryonline.org/data/Journals/NP/3923/RA4831F2.jpeg PML oligodendrocyte (psychiatryonline.org)].<ref>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Hurley | first1 = RA. | last2 = Ernst | first2 = T. | last3 = Khalili | first3 = K. | last4 = Del Valle | first4 = L. | last5 = Simone | first5 = IL. | last6 = Taber | first6 = KH. | title = Identification of HIV-associated progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy: magnetic resonance imaging and spectroscopy. | journal = J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci | volume = 15 | issue = 1 | pages = 1-6 | month =  | year = 2003 | doi =  | PMID = 12556565 }}</ref>


===IHC===
===Epidemiology===
*SV40 +ve.<ref name=pmid15581180>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Muñoz-Mármol | first1 = AM. | last2 = Mola | first2 = G. | last3 = Fernández-Vasalo | first3 = A. | last4 = Vela | first4 = E. | last5 = Mate | first5 = JL. | last6 = Ariza | first6 = A. | title = JC virus early protein detection by immunohistochemistry in progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy: a comparative study with in situ hybridization and polymerase chain reaction. | journal = J Neuropathol Exp Neurol | volume = 63 | issue = 11 | pages = 1124-30 | month = Nov | year = 2004 | doi =  | PMID = 15581180 }}</ref>
*Autosomal recessive - mutation in a number of genes including NPHP1, AHI1, and CEP290.<ref name=ninds_joubert/>


=See also=
=See also=
Michael
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