Difference between revisions of "Neurohistology"

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Neurohistology (view source)

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''This article'' has some overlap with the ''[[neuroanatomy]]'' article, as there isn't a clear divider between microscopic and macroscopic.
''This article'' has some overlap with the ''[[neuroanatomy]]'' article, as there isn't a clear divider between microscopic and macroscopic.


==Normal cells==
=Normal cells=
*Neuron:
This section deals with normal cellular constituents of the CNS.
**Abundant cytoplasm - '''key feature'''.
 
**Often very large cells, with angled edges.
==Overview==
**Prominent nucleolus.
===Central nervous system===
**Nissl substance (granular perinuclear material - rough ER).
====Neuron====
*Glial cells.
*Abundant cytoplasm - '''key feature'''.
**Oligodendrocyte.
*Often very large cells, with angled edges.
***Small round nuclei (lymphocyte-like nucleus) - '''key feature'''.
*Prominent nucleolus.
***May resemble a ''fried egg'' on H&E (clear cytoplasm, central nucleus).
*Nissl substance (granular perinuclear material = rough endoplasmic reticulum).
**Astrocyte.
 
***Irregular non-ovoid nucleus - '''key feature'''.
====Glial cells====
***Nuclei less dense than in oligodendrocyte.
*Oligodendrocyte.
***Close to blood vessels.
**Small round nuclei (lymphocyte-like nucleus) - '''key feature'''.
***Form blood-brain barrier.
**May resemble a ''fried egg'' on H&E (clear cytoplasm, central nucleus).
***Cytoplasm normally ''not'' visible.
**Image: [http://www.urmc.rochester.edu/libraries/courses/neuroslides/lab1a/images/1-11.png oligodendrocyte urmc.rochester.edu]
***Image: [http://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/histology/endocrine/pin42he.jpg astrocyte (med.unsw.edu.au)] (in [http://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/notes/endocrine12.htm endocrine development]).
*Astrocyte.
**Microglia - macrophage of the brain (derived from monocyte).
**Irregular non-ovoid nucleus - '''key feature'''.
***May be large.
**Nuclei less dense than in oligodendrocyte.
***May have vesicles.
**Close to blood vessels.
***Rarely seen in normal tissue.
**Form blood-brain barrier.
**Cytoplasm normally ''not'' visible.
**Image: [http://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/histology/endocrine/pin42he.jpg astrocyte (med.unsw.edu.au)] (in [http://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/notes/endocrine12.htm endocrine development]).
*Microglia - macrophage of the brain (derived from monocyte).
**Typically large cells with abundant cytoplasm.
***Often have vesicles.
**Rarely seen in normal tissue.
**Three morphologic types:
***Ramified microglia.
***Hypertrophic microglia.
***Dystrophic microglia - often seen in neurodegnerative disease.
*Ependyma.
*Ependyma.
**Simple ciliated cuboidal epithelium.
**Simple ciliated cuboidal epithelium.
**Image: [http://www.stonybrookmedicalcenter.org/sbumcfiles/images/221-001.jpg Ependyma (stonybrookmedicalcenter.org)].
**Image: [http://www.stonybrookmedicalcenter.org/sbumcfiles/images/221-001.jpg Ependyma (stonybrookmedicalcenter.org)].
*Choroid plexus.
**Specialized ependymal cells
**Cuboidal epithelial cells surrounding a core of capillaries and loose connective tissue.
**Ventricular location.
=====Images=====
[[File:Blausen 0870 TypesofNeuroglia.png |500px| Types of neuroglia (WC/Blausen)]]
<gallery>
File:Astrocytes.jpg | Astrocytes highlighted by GFAP (WC/Jeffery J. Iliff)
Image:Oligodendrocyte_HE_stain_high_mag.jpg | Oligodendrocytes with fried-egg appearance (WC/jensflorian)
Image:Ependyma.png|Ependymal cells. (WC/marvin101)
File:Psammoma bodies in the choroid plexus, HE.JPG | Choroid plexus (WC/Patho)
File:Mikroglej 1.jpg | Microglial cells, Lectin stain (WC/Grzegorz Wicher)
</gallery>


===Normal cellular constituents in a table===
===Peripheral nervous system===
{| class="wikitable"
====Ganglion cell====
|  
*Nerve cell body.
|Key feature
*Found in ganglions - encapsulated body ~ 100-300 μm.
|Other features
*Large round nucleus with prominent nucleolus - '''key feature'''.
|Image
*Abundant eosinophilic granular cytoplasm.
====Schwann cell====
*Principal glia of the PNS.
*Myelinated or unmyelinated.
*Ovoid, wavy nuclei.
*Cells have a basal membrane.
*Found in peripheral nerves.
*Aka ''neurolemmocytes''.
=====Images=====
<gallery>
Image:Ganglion_very_high_mag.jpg | Ganglion - very high mag. (WC/Nephron)
Image:Peripheral nerve, cross section.jpg | Peripheral nerve - cross section. (WC/Reytan)
File:Nerve root - very high mag.jpg | Nerve root HPS stain (WC/Nephron)
</gallery>
 
WC:
*[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ganglion_intermed_mag.jpg Ganglion - intermed. mag. (WC/Nephron)].
 
==Normal cellular constituents in a table==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Cell  
! Key feature
! Other features
! Image
|-
|-
|Neuron  
|Neuron  
Line 57: Line 103:
|}
|}


===Neurons===
==Neurons==
There are many types of 'em.  Broadly, they can be classified as:
There are many types of 'em.  Broadly, they can be classified as:
#Pyramidal - have a pyramidal shape.
#Pyramidal - have a pyramidal shape.
Line 70: Line 116:
*Send dendrites in all directions.
*Send dendrites in all directions.


Image: [http://www.stonybrookmedicalcenter.org/sbumcfiles/images/238-002.jpg Motor neuron (stonybrookmedicalcenter.org)].
===Images===
www:
*[http://www.stonybrookmedicalcenter.org/sbumcfiles/images/238-002.jpg Motor neuron (stonybrookmedicalcenter.org)].
<gallery>
Image:Medulla_oblongata_-_posterior_-_cn_xii_-_very_high_mag.jpg | Motor neurons - nucleus of CN XII - very high mag. (WC)
</gallery>
 
=Structures=
This section deals with structures seen at several places in the CNS.


===Grey vs. white matter===
==Grey matter and white matter==
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|  
|  
Line 87: Line 141:
|-
|-
| Image
| Image
| [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Grey_matter_and_white_matter_-_very_high_mag.jpg right 2/3 of image]
| [[Image:Grey_matter_and_white_matter_-_very_high_mag.jpg|thumb|Right 2/3 of image. (WC/Nephron)]]
| [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Grey_matter_and_white_matter_-_very_high_mag.jpg left 1/3 of image]
| [[Image:Grey_matter_and_white_matter_-_very_high_mag.jpg|thumb|Left 1/3 of image. (WC/Nephron)]]
|}
|}


Additional images (white matter vs. grey matter):
Additional images (white matter vs. grey matter):
*[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Grey_matter_and_white_matter_-_high_mag.jpg Grey-white matter interface - high mag. (WC)].
<gallery>
*[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Grey_matter_and_white_matter_-_intermed_mag.jpg Grey and white matter - intermed. mag. (WC)].
Image:Grey_matter_and_white_matter_-_high_mag.jpg | Grey-white matter interface - high mag. (WC)
Image:Grey_matter_and_white_matter_-_intermed_mag.jpg | Grey and white matter - intermed. mag. (WC)
File:LFB_CNS_cortex_supratentorial.jpg | Normal cortex - LFB. (WC/jensflorian)
File:LFB_CNS_cortex_grey-white_matter_junction.jpg | White-grey matter junction - LFB. (WC/jensflorian)
</gallery>
 
==Vessels==
The small blood vessels in the CNS are separated from the surrounding tissue in histologic sections. This is normal.  The spaces are called ''Virchow-Robin spaces''.<ref>URL: [http://www.whonamedit.com/synd.cfm/43.html http://www.whonamedit.com/synd.cfm/43.html]. Accessed on: 2 August 2011.</ref>


=Histology by anatomical structure=
=Histology by anatomical structure=
This section deals with specific anatomical structures.
==Subependyma==
==Subependyma==
Features:<ref>Croul SE. 28 June 2010.</ref>
Features:<ref>Croul SE. 28 June 2010.</ref>
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*#Small - GABA.
*#Small - GABA.
*#Large (very rare: ~1 in 100-200) - cholingeric.
*#Large (very rare: ~1 in 100-200) - cholingeric.
Images:
*[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Globus_pallidus_and_putamen_-_very_low_mag.jpg Globus pallidus & putamen - showing Wilson's pencils - very low mag. (WC)].
*[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Putamen_-_intermed_mag.jpg Putamen - intermed. mag. (WC)].
*[http://frontalcortex.com/?page=oll&topic=24&qid=760 Pencils of Wilson (frontalcortex.com)].


Notes:
Notes:
*Histologically identical to the ''caudate'' - but not adjacent to a ventricle.
*Histologically identical to the ''caudate'' - but not adjacent to a ventricle.
**The caudate is adjacent to an ependymal lined space, putamen is not.<ref>URL: [http://www.stonybrookmedicalcenter.org/pathology/neuropathology/chapter1 http://www.stonybrookmedicalcenter.org/pathology/neuropathology/chapter1]. Accessed on: 22 December 2010.</ref>
**The caudate is adjacent to an ependymal lined space, putamen is not.<ref>URL: [http://www.stonybrookmedicalcenter.org/pathology/neuropathology/chapter1 http://www.stonybrookmedicalcenter.org/pathology/neuropathology/chapter1]. Accessed on: 22 December 2010.</ref>
*[[Necrotic]] putamen in methanol poisoning.<ref name=pmid19015300>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Bhatia | first1 = R. | last2 = Kumar | first2 = M. | last3 = Garg | first3 = A. | last4 = Nanda | first4 = A. | title = Putaminal necrosis due to methanol toxicity. | journal = Pract Neurol | volume = 8 | issue = 6 | pages = 386-7 | month = Dec | year = 2008 | doi = 10.1136/jnnp.2008.161976 | PMID = 19015300 }}</ref>
===Images===
<gallery>
Image:Globus_pallidus_and_putamen_-_very_low_mag.jpg | Globus pallidus & putamen - showing Wilson's pencils - very low mag. (WC)
Image:Putamen_-_intermed_mag.jpg | Putamen - intermed. mag. (WC)
</gallery>
www:
*[http://frontalcortex.com/?page=oll&topic=24&qid=760 Pencils of Wilson (frontalcortex.com)].


==Globus pallidus==
==Globus pallidus==
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*Histologically distinct from caudate and putamen.
*Histologically distinct from caudate and putamen.


Image: [http://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nucleus_basalis_of_Meynert_-l-_very_low_mag.jpg Globus pallidus, putamen and substantia innominata - very low mag. (WC)].
===Image===
<gallery>
Image:Nucleus_basalis_of_Meynert_-l-_very_low_mag.jpg | Globus pallidus, putamen and the nucleus basalis in the substantia innominata - very low mag. (WC)
</gallery>


==Hippocampus==
==Hippocampus==
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#Subiculum ([[AKA]] subicular complex).
#Subiculum ([[AKA]] subicular complex).
#*Transitions to the six layers in the ''entorhinal cortex''.
#*Transitions to the six layers in the ''entorhinal cortex''.
#**No vacuolated looking stuff next to it.


Images:  
Important notes:
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brainmaps-macaque-hippocampus.jpg Hippocampus - frontal section (WP)].
*CA1 - weak link, dies in ischemia, affected by hypoglycemia, degenerative diseases and toxins.
*[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hippocampus_%28brain%29.jpg Hippocampus - good schematic (WC)].
*CA2 - resistant to ischemia.
*CA4 - involved in [[epilepsy]],<ref name=pmid3518570>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Ingvar | first1 = M. | title = Cerebral blood flow and metabolic rate during seizures. Relationship to epileptic brain damage. | journal = Ann N Y Acad Sci | volume = 462 | issue =  | pages = 194-206 | month =  | year = 1986 | doi =  | PMID = 3518570 }}</ref> usu. normal in degenerative diseases.<ref>D. Munoz. 27 July 2011.</ref>
====Images====
<gallery>
Image:Brainmaps-macaque-hippocampus.jpg | Hippocampus - frontal section. (WC)
Image:Hippocampus_%28brain%29.jpg | Hippocampus - schematic. (WC)
</gallery>
www:
*[http://www.ajnr.org/cgi/content-nw/full/28/5/958/F1 Hippocampus (ajnr.org)].
*[http://www.ajnr.org/cgi/content-nw/full/28/5/958/F1 Hippocampus (ajnr.org)].
*[http://edoc.hu-berlin.de/dissertationen/schubert-stephan-nicolas-2003-09-26/HTML/schubert_html_21d219b1.png Hippocampus and subiculum (hu-berlin.de)].
*[http://edoc.hu-berlin.de/dissertationen/schubert-stephan-nicolas-2003-09-26/HTML/schubert_html_21d219b1.png Hippocampus and subiculum (hu-berlin.de)].
*[http://spinwarp.ucsd.edu/NeuroWeb/Text/br-800epi/br-800epi1.gif Hippocampus - crappy schematic (ucsd.edu)].
*[http://spinwarp.ucsd.edu/NeuroWeb/Text/br-800epi/br-800epi1.gif Hippocampus - crappy schematic (ucsd.edu)].
Important notes:
*CA1 - weak link, dies in ischemia, affected by hypoglycemia, degenerative diseases and toxins.
*CA2 - resistant to ischemia.


===Layers of CA<ref name=Ref_PSNP25>{{Ref PSNP|25}}</ref>===
===Layers of CA<ref name=Ref_PSNP25>{{Ref PSNP|25}}</ref>===
Line 183: Line 256:
**Small neurons.
**Small neurons.


Images:
====Images====
*[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dentate_nucleus_-_cerebellum_-_intermed_mag.jpg Dentate nucleus of the cerebellum - intermed. mag. (WC)].
<gallery>
*[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dentate_nucleus_-_cerebellum_-_high_mag.jpg Dentate nucleus of the cerebellum - high mag. (WC)].
Image:Dentate_nucleus_-_cerebellum_-_intermed_mag.jpg | Dentate nucleus of the cerebellum - intermed. mag. (WC)
Image:Dentate_nucleus_-_cerebellum_-_high_mag.jpg | Dentate nucleus of the cerebellum - high mag. (WC)
</gallery>


===Cerebellar cortex===  
===Cerebellar cortex===  
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*#**May look like small cell carcinoma to the uninitiated.  
*#**May look like small cell carcinoma to the uninitiated.  
*#*Golgi cells (interneurons) - few in number, elongated/columnar, 3-5x size of granule cell.
*#*Golgi cells (interneurons) - few in number, elongated/columnar, 3-5x size of granule cell.
*Images:
**[http://www.stonybrookmedicalcenter.org/sbumcfiles/images/227_001.jpg Cerebellar cortex - micrograph with labels (stonybrookmedicalcenter.org)].
**[http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Gray706.png Cerebellar cortex - schematic (Gray's Anatomy - WC)].
**[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cerebellar_cortex_-_intermed_mag.jpg Cerebellar cortex - intermed. mag. (WC)].
**[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cerebellum_-_biel_-_high_mag.jpg Cerebellar cortex - high mag. - Bielschowsky stain (WC)].


Notes:
Notes:
*''Bergmann glia'' are found between the molecular layer & granular layer.  They are normally not seen.  They are increased & prominent in pathologic states (e.g. ischemia); "Bergmann gliosis".<ref name=Ref_PSNP18>{{Ref PSNP|18}}</ref>
*''Bergmann glia'' are found between the molecular layer & granular layer.  They are normally not seen.  They are increased & prominent in pathologic states (e.g. ischemia); "[[Bergmann gliosis]]".<ref name=Ref_PSNP18>{{Ref PSNP|18}}</ref>
 
====Images====
www:
*[http://www.stonybrookmedicalcenter.org/sbumcfiles/images/227_001.jpg Cerebellar cortex - micrograph with labels (stonybrookmedicalcenter.org)].
<gallery>
Image:Gray706.png | Cerebellar cortex - schematic. (Gray's Anatomy/WC)
Image:Cerebellar_cortex_-_intermed_mag.jpg | Cerebellar cortex - intermed. mag. (WC)
Image:Cerebellum_-_biel_-_high_mag.jpg | Cerebellar cortex - high mag. [[Bielschowsky stain]]. (WC)
</gallery>


==Cerebral cortex==
==Cerebral cortex==
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#*Not prominent in frontal cortex.
#*Not prominent in frontal cortex.
#*Where the thalamic axons end.
#*Where the thalamic axons end.
#*Divided in three (''a'', ''b'', ''c'') in the calcarine cortex due to two white matter bands (external band of Baillarger, internal band of Baillarger) that are grossly identified as the ''line of Gennari''.<ref name=Ref_PSNP24>{{Ref PSNP|24}}</ref>
#*Divided in three (''a'', ''b'', ''c'') in the calcarine cortex due to two white matter bands (external band of Baillarger, internal band of Baillarger) that are grossly identified as the ''line of Gennari''.<ref name=Ref_PSNP24>{{Ref PSNP|24}}</ref><ref>URL: [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11524/ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11524/]. Accessed on: 7 January 2011.</ref>
#**Image: [http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/iacp-olp/APAQ-Images/N1-MS-01-01.gif Calcarine cortex (ouhsc.edu)].<ref>URL: [http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/iacp-olp/apaq-text/N1-MS-01-01-Ans.htm http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/iacp-olp/apaq-text/N1-MS-01-01-Ans.htm] and [http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/iacp-olp/apaq-text/n1-ms-01.htm http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/iacp-olp/apaq-text/n1-ms-01.htm]. Accessed on: 31 October 2010.</ref>
#**Image: [http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/iacp-olp/APAQ-Images/N1-MS-01-01.gif Calcarine cortex (ouhsc.edu)].<ref>URL: [http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/iacp-olp/apaq-text/N1-MS-01-01-Ans.htm http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/iacp-olp/apaq-text/N1-MS-01-01-Ans.htm] and [http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/iacp-olp/apaq-text/n1-ms-01.htm http://moon.ouhsc.edu/kfung/iacp-olp/apaq-text/n1-ms-01.htm]. Accessed on: 31 October 2010.</ref>
#Inner pyramidal layer.
#Inner pyramidal layer.
Line 226: Line 305:
Images:
Images:
*[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cajal_cortex_drawings.png Cajal drawings - different areas (WC)].
*[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cajal_cortex_drawings.png Cajal drawings - different areas (WC)].
*[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Visual_cortex_-_low_mag.jpg Visual cortex - low mag. (WC)].
*[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Visual_cortex_-_intermed_mag.jpg Visual cortex - intermed. mag. (WC)].
*[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11524/figure/ch31visualcortex.F13/?report=objectonly Visual cortex - nissl stain (nlm.nih.gov)].<ref>URL: [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11524/ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11524/]. Accessed on: 7 January 2011.</ref>
*[http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~lngbrain/cglidden/Lab8_fig1.gif Different stains (rice.edu)].
*[http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~lngbrain/cglidden/Lab8_fig1.gif Different stains (rice.edu)].
*[http://williamcalvin.com/bk7/img/bk7p31.jpg Cerebral cortex (williamcalvin.com)].
*[http://williamcalvin.com/bk7/img/bk7p31.jpg Cerebral cortex (williamcalvin.com)].
*[http://www.benbest.com/science/anatmind/anatmd5.html Cerebral cortex (benbest.com)].
*[http://www.benbest.com/science/anatmind/anatmd5.html Cerebral cortex (benbest.com)].
===Cingulate cortex===
*Spindle neurons, [[AKA]] ''von Economo neurons''.
**Thought to be important in cognition and problem solving.<ref name=pmid11411161>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Allman | first1 = JM. | last2 = Hakeem | first2 = A. | last3 = Erwin | first3 = JM. | last4 = Nimchinsky | first4 = E. | last5 = Hof | first5 = P. | title = The anterior cingulate cortex. The evolution of an interface between emotion and cognition. | journal = Ann N Y Acad Sci | volume = 935 | issue =  | pages = 107-17 | month = May | year = 2001 | doi =  | PMID = 11411161 }}</ref>
====Images====
<gallery>
Image:Spindle_neurons_-_high_mag.jpg | Spindle neurons - high mag. (WC)
Image:Spindle_neurons_-_very_high_mag_-_cropped.jpg | Spindle neurons - cropped - very high mag. (WC)
</gallery>


==Pineal gland==
==Pineal gland==
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*Astrocytes:
*Astrocytes:
**Cylindrical hyperchromatic nucleus ~ 1/2 the size of pinealocyte.
**Cylindrical hyperchromatic nucleus ~ 1/2 the size of pinealocyte.
Images:
*[http://www.lab.anhb.uwa.edu.au/mb140/corepages/endocrines/Images/pin42he.jpg Pineal gland (anhb.uwa.edu.au)].<ref name=Blue_Histology_-_Endocrines>URL: [http://www.lab.anhb.uwa.edu.au/mb140/corepages/endocrines/endocrin.htm http://www.lab.anhb.uwa.edu.au/mb140/corepages/endocrines/endocrin.htm]. Accessed on: 31 October 2010.</ref>
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pineal_gland_-_very_high_mag.jpg Pineal gland - very high mag. (WC)].
*[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pineal_gland_-_intermed_mag.jpg Pineal gland - intermed. mag. (WC)].
*[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pineal.jpg Pineal gland - crappy (WC)].


Notes:
Notes:
*Highly cellular structure - may be confused with (metastatic) small cell carcinoma.
*Highly cellular structure - may be confused with (metastatic) [[small cell carcinoma]].
*Often calcified.
*Often calcified.
 
===Images===
<gallery>
Image:Pineal_gland_-_very_high_mag.jpg | Pineal gland - very high mag. (WC/Nephron)
Image:Pineal_gland_-_intermed_mag.jpg | Pineal gland - intermed. mag. (WC/Nephron)
Image:Pineal.jpg | Pineal gland. (WC)
</gallery>
www:
*[http://www.lab.anhb.uwa.edu.au/mb140/corepages/endocrines/Images/pin42he.jpg Pineal gland (anhb.uwa.edu.au)].<ref name=Blue_Histology_-_Endocrines>URL: [http://www.lab.anhb.uwa.edu.au/mb140/corepages/endocrines/endocrin.htm http://www.lab.anhb.uwa.edu.au/mb140/corepages/endocrines/endocrin.htm]. Accessed on: 31 October 2010.</ref>
===IHC===
===IHC===
*Synaptophysin +ve.<ref name=Ref_PSNP25-26>{{Ref_PSNP|25-26}}</ref>
*Synaptophysin +ve.<ref name=Ref_PSNP25-26>{{Ref_PSNP|25-26}}</ref>
Line 256: Line 347:
==Midbrain==
==Midbrain==
Structures:
Structures:
*Substantia nigra (Parkinson's disease).
*Substantia nigra ([[Parkinson's disease]]).
*Nucleus of CN IV (posterior). (???)
*Nuclei of CN IV (posterior).
*Nucleus of CN III (anterior).
*Nuclei of CN III (anterior).
*Cerebral penduncles (anterior).
*Cerebral penduncles (anterior).
*Red nuclei.
===Schematics===
<gallery>
Image:Cn3nucleus.png | Midbrain (WC)
Image:Gray696.png | Nuclei of the CNs (WC)
Image:Brain_stem_sagittal_section.svg | Nuclei of the CNs - sagittal section of brain stem (WC)
</gallery>


==Pons==
==Pons==
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*Literally means ''blue spot''.
*Literally means ''blue spot''.
*Location: adjacent to midline + anterior to 4th ventricle.
*Location: adjacent to midline + anterior to 4th ventricle.
**Images:
***[http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/File:Bouret_LC_anat2.jpg Locus ceruleus - ''LC'' - (scholarpedia.org)].
***[http://www.med.univ-rennes1.fr/etud/pharmaco/media/locussag.jpg LC (univ-rennes1.fr)].<ref>URL: [http://www.med.univ-rennes1.fr/etud/pharmaco/media/alzheimerGB.htm#Locus%20coeruleus http://www.med.univ-rennes1.fr/etud/pharmaco/media/alzheimerGB.htm#Locus%20coeruleus]. Accessed on: 4 December 2010.</ref>


Microscopic features:
Microscopic features:
*Pigmented neurons.
*Pigmented neurons.
**Produce norepinephrine.
**Produce norepinephrine.
Notes:
*Pale in [[Parkinson disease]] due to neuronal loss.<ref name=Ref_PCPBoD8_677>{{Ref PCPBoD8|677}}</ref>
====Images====
<gallery>
Image:Locus_ceruleus_-_very_low_mag.jpg | Locus ceruleus (LC) - very low mag. (WC)
Image:Locus_ceruleus_-_low_mag.jpg | Locus ceruleus (LC) - low mag. (WC)
Image:Locus_ceruleus_-_intermed_mag.jpg | Locus ceruleus (LC) - intermed. mag. (WC)
Image:Locus_ceruleus_-_high_mag.jpg | Locus ceruleus (LC) - high mag. (WC)
</gallery>
www:
*[http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/File:Bouret_LC_anat2.jpg LC - labeled on MRI - (scholarpedia.org)].


==Medulla oblongata==
==Medulla oblongata==
*[[AKA]] ''medulla''.
*[[AKA]] ''medulla''.
===Anatomy===
===Anatomy===
Schematic: [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gray694.png Medulla - Gray's anatomy (WC)].
Schematic: [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gray694.png Medulla oblongata - Gray's anatomy (WC)].


====Anterior====
====Anterior====
Line 291: Line 400:
*CN XII: 4th ventricle + adjacent to midline; medial to nucleus of CN X.<ref name=Ref_Neuroanat13>{{Ref Neuroanat|13}}</ref>
*CN XII: 4th ventricle + adjacent to midline; medial to nucleus of CN X.<ref name=Ref_Neuroanat13>{{Ref Neuroanat|13}}</ref>
*CN X: 4th ventricle + lateral to nucleus of CN XII.
*CN X: 4th ventricle + lateral to nucleus of CN XII.
**This is were Lewy body formation starts.<ref name=pmid19501577>{{cite journal |author=Miller VM, Kenny RA, Oakley AE, Hall R, Kalaria RN, Allan LM |title=Dorsal motor nucleus of vagus protein aggregates in Lewy body disease with autonomic dysfunction |journal=Brain Res. |volume=1286 |issue= |pages=165–73 |year=2009 |month=August |pmid=19501577 |doi=10.1016/j.brainres.2009.05.083 |url=}}</ref>
**This is were [[Lewy body]] formation starts.<ref name=pmid19501577>{{cite journal |author=Miller VM, Kenny RA, Oakley AE, Hall R, Kalaria RN, Allan LM |title=Dorsal motor nucleus of vagus protein aggregates in Lewy body disease with autonomic dysfunction |journal=Brain Res. |volume=1286 |issue= |pages=165–73 |year=2009 |month=August |pmid=19501577 |doi=10.1016/j.brainres.2009.05.083 |url=}}</ref>
 
=====Image=====
<gallery>
Image:Medulla_oblongata_-_posterior_-_very_low_mag.jpg | Medulla oblongata - very low mag. (WC)
</gallery>
 
==Pituitary gland==
===Anatomy===
*Located in sella turcica below optic chiasm.
*Anterior lobe is epithelial.
*Posterior lobe is neuroepithelial.
*The infundibulum connects the pituitary to the brain
Schematic: [[File:Gray1181.png Pituitary gland - Gray's anatomy (WC)]].
 
 
====Images====
<gallery>
File:Anterior and posterior pituitary.jpg | Anterior & posterior pituitary. (WC)
File:Adenohypofýza HE.jpg | Adenohypophysis. (WC/Držiak)
</gallery>


=See also=
=See also=
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