Difference between revisions of "Prostate gland"

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The '''prostate''' adds juice to the sperm.  In old men it creates lotsa problems... nodular hyperplasia (commonly called BPH or benign prostatic hypertrophy) and cancer (adenocarcinoma).
[[Image:Prostatelead.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The prostate gland and its surrounding structures. (WC/NCI)]]
The '''prostate gland''' adds juice to the sperm.  In old men it creates a lot of problems... [[nodular hyperplasia]] (commonly called BPH or [[benign prostatic hyperplasia]]) and cancer (usually adenocarcinoma).


==Normal==  
[[Prostate cancer]] is such a big topic it is dealt with in its own article. 
 
The female homologue of the prostate gland is considered to be Skene's gland.<ref name=pmid8522254>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Dodson | first1 = MK. | last2 = Cliby | first2 = WA. | last3 = Pettavel | first3 = PP. | last4 = Keeney | first4 = GL. | last5 = Podratz | first5 = KC. | title = Female urethral adenocarcinoma: evidence for more than one tissue of origin? | journal = Gynecol Oncol | volume = 59 | issue = 3 | pages = 352-7 | month = Dec | year = 1995 | doi = 10.1006/gyno.1995.9963 | PMID = 8522254 }}</ref>
 
=Normal prostate gland=
==Anatomy==
Divided into three zones:<ref name=pmid2456702>{{Cite journal  | last1 = McNeal | first1 = JE. | title = Normal histology of the prostate. | journal = Am J Surg Pathol | volume = 12 | issue = 8 | pages = 619-33 | month = Aug | year = 1988 | doi =  | PMID = 2456702 }}
</ref>
#Peripheral zone - posterior aspect, palpable with digit.
#*Classic location for [[prostate cancer|cancer]].
#Central zone - considered resistant to disease.
#Transition zone - usual location for [[nodular hyperplasia of the prostate|nodular hyperplasia]].
 
==Histology==
*Glands have two cell layers (similar to glands in breast).
*Glands have two cell layers (similar to glands in breast).
**Second cell layer may be difficult to see (like in breast).
**Second cell layer may be difficult to see (like in breast).
*Epithelium in glands fold.
*Epithelium in glands is "folded" or "tufted".
**Very important - helps on differentiate from Gleason pattern 3.
**Very important - helps to differentiate from Gleason pattern 3.
*Luminal epithelium often clear.
*Luminal epithelium often clear cytoplasm.
 
*No nucleoli present (if you see nuclei think: cancer, HGPIN, reactive changes, basal cell hyperplasia).
*Single nucleus.
*Single nucleus.
*No mitoses - these are uncommon... even in high grade prostate cancer.


Benign normal:
*Corpora amylacea.  
*Corpora amylacea.  
**Round/ovoid-eosinophilic bodies -- with laminations (layered appearance).
**Round/ovoid-eosinophilic bodies -- with laminations (layered appearance).
Line 19: Line 31:
**These should be differentiated from ''eosinophilic proteinaceous debris'' - which is associated with cancer.
**These should be differentiated from ''eosinophilic proteinaceous debris'' - which is associated with cancer.


*Mucinous glands at the apex of the prostate = ''Cowper's gland'' (AKA ''bulbourethral gland''), resemble (mucinous) [[salivary gland]]s.<ref>PR. September 2009.</ref>
Negatives:
*No nucleoli present (if you see nuclei think: cancer, HGPIN, reactive changes, basal cell hyperplasia).
*No mitoses - these are uncommon... even in high grade prostate cancer.


===IHC===
Notes:
Normal prostate:  
*Tufted epithelium is a strong indicator of benignancy; however two uncommon prostate cancer variants typically have tufted epithelium:
AMACR-, p63+, HMWCK+, PSA+, PSAP+.
**[[Pseudohyperplastic adenocarcinoma]].
**[[Foamy gland carcinoma]].


==Common diagnoses==
====Images====
*Benign.
<gallery>
**Atrophy (may be resemble adenocarcinoma).
Image:Corpora_amylacea_low_mag.jpg | Benign prostate with corpora amylacea - low mag. (WC/Nephron)
*Prostate adenocarcinoma.  
Image:Corpora_amylacea_high_mag.jpg | Benign prostate with corpora amylacea - high mag. (WC/Nephron)
**Most common Grade is 3+3=6.
</gallery>
*HGPIN (high-grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia).
*ASAP (atypical small acinar proliferation) - used if you have a few abnormal appearing glands... but can't decide between prostate adenocarcinoma & benign.
*Chronic inflammation.
*Acute inflammation - can result in an elevated PSA and may have prompted the biopsy you're looking at.


==Cancer==
==IHC of normal prostate==
===Criteria as a list===
Normal prostate:
Major criteria:<ref name=pmid17213347>{{cite journal |author=Humphrey PA |title=Diagnosis of adenocarcinoma in prostate needle biopsy tissue |journal=J. Clin. Pathol. |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=35–42 |year=2007 |month=January |pmid=17213347 |pmc=1860598 |doi=10.1136/jcp.2005.036442 |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1860598/?tool=pubmed}}</ref>
*[[AMACR]] -ve (mark epithelial cells).
#"Infiltrative growth" pattern.
*[[CK5/6]] +ve,<ref name=pmid19605815>{{Cite journal | last1 = Trpkov | first1 = K. | last2 = Bartczak-McKay | first2 = J. | last3 = Yilmaz | first3 = A. | title = Usefulness of cytokeratin 5/6 and AMACR applied as double sequential immunostains for diagnostic assessment of problematic prostate specimens. | journal = Am J Clin Pathol | volume = 132 | issue = 2 | pages = 211-20; quiz 307 | month = Aug | year = 2009 | doi = 10.1309/AJCPGFJP83IXZEUR | PMID = 19605815 }}</ref> p63 +ve, HMWCK +ve (mark basal cells).
#Lack of basal cells.
*PSA ([[prostate-specific antigen]]) +ve, PSAP ([[prostatic-specific acid phosphatase]]) +ve.
#Nuclear enlargement.
#Nucleoli.


Minor criteria:<ref name=pmid17213347/>
==Sign out==
#Nuclear hyperchromasia.
===Staining slightly abnormal - morphology not definitely abnormal===
#Wispy blue mucin.
<pre>
#*Image: [http://www.nature.com/modpathol/journal/v17/n3/fig_tab/3800050f3.html#figure-title Wispy blue mucin (nature.com)] - from Epstein.<ref name=pmid14739905>{{cite journal |author=Epstein JI |title=Diagnosis and reporting of limited adenocarcinoma of the prostate on needle biopsy |journal=Mod. Pathol. |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=307–15 |year=2004 |month=March |pmid=14739905 |doi=10.1038/modpathol.3800050 |url=http://www.nature.com/modpathol/journal/v17/n3/full/3800050a.html}}</ref>
COMMENT:
#Pink amorphous secretions.
Very focal AMACR staining is seen; this is interpreted as negative, in the
#*Image: [http://www.nature.com/modpathol/journal/v17/n3/fig_tab/3800050f11.html Pink amorphous secretions (nature.com)] - from Epstein.<ref name=pmid14739905>{{cite journal |author=Epstein JI |title=Diagnosis and reporting of limited adenocarcinoma of the prostate on needle biopsy |journal=Mod. Pathol. |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=307–15 |year=2004 |month=March |pmid=14739905 |doi=10.1038/modpathol.3800050 |url=http://www.nature.com/modpathol/journal/v17/n3/full/3800050a.html}}</ref>
context of no definite cytologic changes. The basal cells appear to be
#Intraluminal crystalloid.
preserved in all of the tissue sampled.
#Amphophilic cytoplasm.
</pre>
#Adjacent HGPIN.
#Mitoses.


===Low power features===
===Compatible with previous biopsy===
*Architecture is the key to diagnosing low grade cancer.
<pre>
**Back-to-back glands or crowding of glands -- think low grade cancer (Gleason pattern 3).
COMMENT:
**Sharp transition between gland border and lumen.
Siderophages are seen in several cores; this is compatible with the history
***Loss of epithelial folding at the epithelium-gland lumen interface - "punched-out" appearance.
of a previous biopsy.
**Eosinophilic proteinaceous debris within the gland lumen.
</pre>


===High power features===
=Other accessory glands=
*Nuclei.
==Bulbourethral gland==
**Hyperchromatic nuclei (like in HGPIN).
*[[AKA]] ''Cowper's gland''.
**Nuclear largement.
{{Main|Bulbourethral gland}}
***Difficult to appreciate (if cancer isn't side-by-side with normal prostate).
***Difficult to see if not on high power.
*Nucleoli visible on high power (200x or 100X)
**May be difficult to see - especially if light intensity is low.
***One should not use 400x to look for nucleoli (it is a waste of time + you risk overcalling something benign).
**If I see three good nucleoli in a gland I'm usually confident it is cancer.
*Loss of basal cells - diagnostic feature.
**Like in breast pathology (where one looks for loss of myoepithelial cells) - this may be difficult to see.


Notes:
==Seminal vesicles==
*Mitoses are not a common feature - don't waste time looking for them.
{{Main|Seminal vesicles}}


===IHC===
=Specimens=
*AMACR +ve, p63 -ve, HMWCK (34betaE12) -ve .
*[[Prostate core biopsy]] - done transrectal.
*Usually positive: PSA, PSAP.
*[[Prostate chips]] (from a ''transurethral resection of the prostate'', abbreviated ''TURP'') - usu. done for [[nodular hyperplasia of the prostate gland]]; may be done in the context of obstructing cancer.
*[[Radical prostatectomy]] - includes the [[seminal vesicles]].
*[[Radical cystoprostatectomy]] - includes the [[urinary bladder]] and [[seminal vesicles]].<ref>URL: [http://www.cancer.gov/dictionary?cdrid=446218 http://www.cancer.gov/dictionary?cdrid=446218]. Accessed on: 23 February 2012.</ref>


===Grading===
=Approach=
There is only one grading system that any one talks about...
*Know the common diagnoses well.
*Core biopsies - scan the slides with the 10x objective.


====Gleason grading system====
==Common diagnoses==
*Score range: 2-10.
*Benign.
*Reported as: (primary pattern) + (secondary pattern) = sum.
**[[Atrophy of the prostate|Atrophy]] - may resemble adenocarcinoma - typically not reported.
**e.g. ''Gleason grade 3+4=7'' means: pattern 3 is present and dominant, pattern 4 is present but in a lesser amount than pattern 3.
**[[Adenosis of the prostate|Adenosis]] - may resemble adenocarcinoma - typically not reported.
*[[Prostate adenocarcinoma]].
*[[HGPIN]] (high-grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia) - prostate adenocarcinoma precursor lesion.
*[[ASAP]] (atypical small acinar proliferation) - used if you have a few abnormal appearing glands... but can't decide between prostate adenocarcinoma & benign.
*Chronic inflammation.
*Acute inflammation - can result in an elevated PSA and may have prompted the biopsy you're looking at.
*[[Nodular hyperplasia of the prostate]]; [[AKA]] ''benign prostatic hypertrophy'' (BPH).
**Not diagnosed on needle biopsies.
**''BPH'' is technically incorrect -- the process is a hyperplasia.
***Hyperplasia = proliferation of cells, hypertrophy = enlargement of cells.
****How to remember? A. '''P'''rostate... hyper'''P'''lasia.


====Gleason pattern 1 & 2====
=Clinical history=
*Academic thing - you can forget about 'em.
{{Main|Prostate specific antigen}}
*[[PSA]] (serum).
** >10 ng/mL worrisome for prostate cancer.
** Normal is age dependent - increases with age, usu. cut-off ~ 4 ng/mL.
*HIFU = ''High Intensity Focused Ultrasound'' - an ablation procedure for prostate cancer.<ref>URL: [http://www.internationalhifu.com/what-is-hifu-mainmenu-132.html http://www.internationalhifu.com/what-is-hifu-mainmenu-132.html]. Accessed on: 15 June 2010.</ref>


====Gleason pattern 3====
=Benign changes and remnants=
*Glands smaller than normal prostate glands + loss of epithelial folding.
==Adenosis of the prostate gland==
*Can draw a line around each gland.
*[[AKA]] ''atypical adenomatous hyperplasia of the prostate gland'' (or ''atypical adenomatous hyperplasia'').
*Benign looking cribriform.
{{Main|Adenosis of the prostate gland}}
**Small and circular.


====Gleason pattern 4====
==Basal cell hyperplasia of the prostate==
*Loss of gland lumina.
{{Main|Basal cell hyperplasia of the prostate}}
*Gland fusion.
*Benign looking cords ('hypernephroid pattern').
*Most cribriform.
*One gland is not enough to call Gleason 4.


====Gleason pattern 5====
==Atrophy of the prostate==
*Sheets.
*[[AKA]] ''atrophy''.
*Single cells.
*[[AKA]] ''prostatic atrophy''.
**May be confused with stromal/lymphocytic infiltration.
*[[AKA]] ''atrophy of the prostate gland''.
***Look for nucleoli, cells should be round (prostatic stroma cells are spindle cells).
{{Main|Atrophy of the prostate gland}}
*Cords.
*Nests of cells with necrosis at centre.


Testing yourself:
==Mesonephric remnant of the prostate gland==
*There is a nice test-yourself quiz from Johns Hopkins: [http://162.129.103.34/prostate/ http://162.129.103.34/prostate/].
{{Main|Mesonephric remnant of the prostate gland}}
**It was studied in a paper by Kronz et al..<ref name=pmid11014569>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Kronz | first1 = JD. | last2 = Silberman | first2 = MA. | last3 = Allsbrook | first3 = WC. | last4 = Bastacky | first4 = SI. | last5 = Burks | first5 = RT. | last6 = Cina | first6 = SJ. | last7 = Mills | first7 = SE. | last8 = Ross | first8 = JS. | last9 = Sakr | first9 = WA. | last10 = Tomaszewski | first10 = JE. | last11 = True | first11 = LD. | last12 = Ulbright | first12 = TM. | last13 = Weinstein | first13 = MW. | last14 = Yantiss | first14 = RK. | last15 = Young | first15 = RH. | last16 = Epstein | first16 = JI. | title = Pathology residents' use of a Web-based tutorial to improve Gleason grading of prostate carcinoma on needle biopsies. | journal = Hum Pathol | volume = 31 | issue = 9 | pages = 1044-50 | month = Sep | year = 2000 | doi = 10.1053/hupa.2000.16278 | PMID = 11014569 }}</ref>


===Management===
=Benign conditions=
The management changes between Gleason 6, 7 & 8; typically, the implications are:
==Prostatic nodular hyperplasia==
* Gleason 6: watchful waiting or radioactive seeds, surgery if patient wants.
*[[AKA]] ''nodular hyperplasia of the prostate''.
* Gleason 7: do something.
*AKA ''benign prostatic hyperplasia'' (abbreviated BPH).
* Gleason 8+: bad cancer - do something quickly!
*AKA ''benign prostatic hypertrophy''.
**This is a misnomer. It is ''not'' a hypertrophy.
{{Main|Nodular hyperplasia of the prostate}}


Bottom line: You want to be sure when you call something Gleason pattern 4.
==Acute inflammation of the prostate gland==
{{ Infobox external links
| Name          = {{PAGENAME}}
| EHVSC          = 10176
| pathprotocols  =
| wikipedia      =
| pathoutlines  =
}}
*[[AKA]] ''prostate gland with acute inflammation''.
===General===
*A may lead to an increase in the PSA and prompt biopsy.


Note:  
Note:
*The usual caveats apply to the above; if the patient is moribund-- nothing is done, if the patient refuses treatment... nothing is done et cetera.
*"[[Prostatitis]]" is considered a clinical diagnosis.
===Margins + Extension===
**Cases are signed out as "acute inflammation".
Definitions:
***Some pathologists do not comment on the presence (or absence) of inflammation.  
*Extraprostatic extension (EPE) is difficult to assess as there is consensus definition.<ref>NEED REF.</ref>
**The prostate does NOT have a well defined capsule.
***Intraobserver agreement for EPE is fair-moderate and lower than for the surgical margin.<ref name=pmid18708939>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Evans | first1 = AJ. | last2 = Henry | first2 = PC. | last3 = Van der Kwast | first3 = TH. | last4 = Tkachuk | first4 = DC. | last5 = Watson | first5 = K. | last6 = Lockwood | first6 = GA. | last7 = Fleshner | first7 = NE. | last8 = Cheung | first8 = C. | last9 = Belanger | first9 = EC. | last10 = Amin | first10 = MB. | last11 = Boccon-Gibod | first11 = L. | last12 = Bostwick | first12 = DG. | last13 = Egevad | first13 = L. | last14 = Epstein | first14 = JI. | last15 = Grignon | first15 = DJ. | last16 = Jones | first16 = EC. | last17 = Montironi | first17 = R. | last18 = Moussa | first18 = M. | last19 = Sweet | first19 = JM. | last20 = Trpkov | first20 = K. | last21 = Wheeler | first21 = TM. | last22 = Srigley | first22 = JR. | title = Interobserver variability between expert urologic pathologists for extraprostatic extension and surgical margin status in radical prostatectomy specimens. | journal = Am J Surg Pathol | volume = 32 | issue = 10 | pages = 1503-12 | month = Oct | year = 2008 | doi = 10.1097/PAS.0b013e31817fb3a0 | PMID = 18708939 }}</ref>
*Surgical margin - where the surgeon cut.
**It is possible to have EPE without a positive margin.
**It is possible to have a positive margin without EPE.


====Extraprostatic extension (EPE)====
===Microscopic===
*Prostatectomy specimens: EPE is present if there is a "significant bulge" in the contour of the prostate at low power.
Features:
*Prostate biopsy: EPE is present if tumour touches adipose tissue.<ref name=pmid17707261>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Epstein | first1 = JI. | last2 = Srigley | first2 = J. | last3 = Grignon | first3 = D. | last4 = Humphrey | first4 = P. | title = Recommendations for the reporting of prostate carcinoma. | journal = Hum Pathol | volume = 38 | issue = 9 | pages = 1305-9 | month = Sep | year = 2007 | doi = 10.1016/j.humpath.2007.05.015 | PMID = 17707261 }}
*[[Neutrophil]]s within the glands, between the epithelial cells ''or'' within the stroma - '''key feature'''.
</ref>
*+/-Chronic inflammation (lymphocytes) within the surrounding stroma.
**The prostate, at the apex, may have some skeletal muscle -- it is hard to define the extent... ergo no EPE at apex. (????)


===Elements of a prostate biopsy report with cancer===
DDx:
#Type of cancer, e.g. "prostatic adenocarcinoma, acinar type".
*[[Prostatic infarction]].
#Gleason score including primary and secondary pattern, e.g. "Gleason score 3+4=7".
#Number of cores involved, e.g. "2/3 cores involved".
#Percent area involved, i.e. how much of the core is cancer, e.g. "75% of specimen is tumour".
#Percent area involved that is Gleason pattern 4 or 5, e.g. "25 of the tumour is Gleason pattern 4 or 5".
#Presence of perineural invasion.
#Presence of extension into fat (extraprostatic extension).


Notes:
====Image====
*"Percent area involved" may seem like an odd thing to request 'cause it is sampling dependent, i.e. if the radiologist sticks the biopsy needle deeper into the lesion more of the core is positive, but urologists think it is important -- more important than perineural invasion.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rubin MA, Bismar TA, Curtis S, Montie JE |title=Prostate needle biopsy reporting: how are the surgical members of the Society of Urologic Oncology using pathology reports to guide treatment of prostate cancer patients? |journal=Am. J. Surg. Pathol. |volume=28 |issue=7 |pages=946–52 |year=2004 |month=July |pmid=15223967 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
<gallery>
Image:Acute_inflammation_of_prostate.jpg| Prostate with acute inflammation. (WC/Nephron)
</gallery>
===Sign out===
<pre>
G. PROSTATE, LEFT LATERAL SUPERIOR, BIOPSY:
- BENIGN PROSTATE TISSUE;
- FOCAL ACUTE INFLAMMATION.
</pre>


==HGPIN (high grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia)==
<pre>
*Diagnosed on basis of nuclear changes.
G. PROSTATE, LEFT LATERAL SUPERIOR, BIOPSY:
**Hyperchromatic nuclei.
- BENIGN PROSTATE TISSUE;
**Nucleoli present.  
- FOCAL ACUTE AND CHRONIC INFLAMMATION.  
**Often increased N/C ratio.
</pre>
*Different architectures (e.g. papillary).
*Usually epithelial hyperplasia.


Note: Low grade PIN (LGPIN) is ''never'' diagnosed. It was found to be a useless diagnosis with no significant prognostic significance.
==Chronic inflammation not otherwise specified==
===General===
*Common.
*Non-specific finding.
*Etiology usually not apparent on histomorphology.


===HGPIN architecture===
===Microscopic===
There are several forms:<ref>WMSP P.380.</ref><ref>[http://www.nature.com/modpathol/journal/v17/n3/pdf/3800053a.pdf]</ref>
Features:
*Flat.
*Lymphocytes within the glands, between the epithelial cells ''or'' within the stroma - '''key feature'''.
*Tufting.
*Micropapillary.
*Cribriform.


Note: The architectural pattern is NOT thought to have any prognostic significance -- may, however, be useful for picking it out from benign prostate.
Notes:
*Rare scattered lymphocytes are common, especially in the central portion of the gland.
*"Focal" one field with a 2.2 mm diameter involved.


===Differentiating between diagnoses===
====Image====
HGPIN vs. adenocarcinoma:  
<gallery>
*Glands with HGPIN have two or more distinct cells layers.
Image:Inflammation_of_prostate.jpg | Prostate with chronic inflammation. (WC/Nephron)
</gallery>
===Sign out===
<pre>
G. PROSTATE, LEFT LATERAL SUPERIOR, BIOPSY:
- BENIGN PROSTATE TISSUE;
- FOCAL CHRONIC INFLAMMATION.  
</pre>


HGPIN vs. normal:  
<pre>
*HPGIN has nuclear changes.
F. PROSTATE, RIGHT MEDIAL MIDZONE, BIOPSY:
- BENIGN PROSTATE TISSUE;
- CHRONIC INFLAMMATION.  
</pre>


May need IHC (especially for cancer vs. HGPIN).
Note:
*Opinion is divided on whether this finding should be reported.
**Advocates for reporting inflammation say "[i]t is just reporting what you see and may explain the bump in PSA."
**Naysayers opine that "[i]t may provide false assurance that no cancer is present."


IHC patterns:
==Granulomatous prostatitis==
*Cancer: AMACR+, p63-, HMWCK-.
{{Main|Granulomatous prostatitis}}
*HGPIN: AMACR+, p63+, HMWCK+.
*Normal: AMACR-, p63+, HMWCK+.


===Reporting prostate cancer===
==Prostatic infarct==
====Biopsy reports====
*[[AKA]] ''prostatic [[infarction]]''.
Important elements:<ref name=pmid17213347/>
===General===
*Diagnosis.  
*Rare < 0.1% of core biopsies.<ref name=pmid11023099>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Milord | first1 = RA. | last2 = Kahane | first2 = H. | last3 = Epstein | first3 = JI. | title = Infarct of the prostate gland: experience on needle biopsy specimens. | journal = Am J Surg Pathol | volume = 24 | issue = 10 | pages = 1378-84 | month = Oct | year = 2000 | doi =  | PMID = 11023099 }}</ref>
**Specific subtype (usually ''acinar adenocarcinoma'').
*Can mimic cancer - [[urothelial carcinoma]].<ref name=pmid11023099/>
**Gleason score, e.g. 4+3=7.
*Prostate usually large.
*Number of cores.
*Number of cores involved.
*Percentage of core surface area involved (estimated).
*Percentage of tumour that is Gleason pattern 4 or 5.


====Prostatectomy specimens====
===Microscopic===
See: [http://www.cap.org/apps/cap.portal?_nfpb=true&cntvwrPtlt_actionOverride=/portlets/contentViewer/show&_windowLabel=cntvwrPtlt&cntvwrPtlt{actionForm.contentReference}=committees/cancer/cancer_protocols/protocols_index.html&_pageLabel=cntvwr CAP checklist].
Features:
*Classic findings of [[necrosis]]:
**Karyolysis (loss of nuclei), karyorrhexis (frag. of nuclei), pyknosis (small shrunken nuclei).
*+/-Squamous metaplasia of prostate gland epithelium.


==Atrophy==
Notes:
*Small glands (may mimic Gleason score 3 pattern).
*Corpora amylacea - help... call it benign.
*Glands often have a jagged edges/prows (in cancer the glands tend to have round edges).
*Glands maintain normal spacing.
**Prow = forward most part of a ship's bow that cuts through the water.<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prow http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prow]</ref>
***You may have come across ''prow'' in the context of [[breast cancer]], i.e. ''tubular carcinoma''.
*Atrophic glands are often hyperchromatic.<ref>SN. June 3, 2009.</ref>
 
Negatives:
*Nuclei like normal.
*Should have two cell layers, i.e. epithelial and myoepithelial (may be difficult to see).


===Differentiating between diagnoses===
DDx:
Atrophy vs. low grade cancer (Gleason pattern 3)
*[[Urothelial carcinoma]] with squamous differentiation.  
*Atrophy - has two distinct cells layers in the gland.
*Atrophy - has an acinar arrangement/look like they originate from one large duct.
*Cancer - glands are back-to-back and do not look like they originate from one large duct.
*Cancer - has nucleoli (atrophy does NOT).


==Basal cell hyperplasia==
Image:
*Atypical appearing glands - typically in transition zone.<ref>[http://pathologyoutlines.com/prostate.html#bch]</ref>
*[http://www.sciencephoto.com/media/258565/enlarge Prostatic thrombosis (sciencephoto.com)].
*May have nucleoli.


===Differentiating between diagnoses===
=Preneoplastic changes and atypical changes=
Basal cell hyperplasia vs. cancer[http://pathologyoutlines.com/prostate.html#bch]
==High-grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia==
*Low power gland architecture near normal.[http://www.nature.com/modpathol/journal/v16/n6/fig_tab/3880810f1.html][http://www.nature.com/modpathol/journal/v16/n6/fig_tab/3880810f2.html]
*Abbreviated as ''HGPIN''.
**Glands ''not'' as small as cancer.
*May be referred to as ''prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia'', abbreviated ''PIN''.
**Folds in gland lumina.
{{Main|High-grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia}}
**No hyperchromasia.
**Two cell layers (as in normal prostate glands).


==Atypical small acinar proliferation==
==Atypical small acinar proliferation==
===General===
*Abbreviated ''ASAP''.
*Abbreviated ''ASAP''.
*Can be considered to be a ''waffle'' diagnosis... like ''ASCUS'' is on the pap test.
*[[AKA]] ''suspicious for carcinoma''.<ref>THvdK. 19 June 2010.</ref>
*Should be used sparingly.
**''ASAP'' is preferred as it does not contain the word ''carcinoma'' and, thus, cannot be misread as ''carcinoma'', i.e. positive for malignancy.
*Never diagnosed on excision, i.e. prostatectomy specimen.
{{Main|Atypical small acinar proliferation}}
*Some experts consider this diagnosis bogus, i.e. some don't believe it exists.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Flury SC, Galgano MT, Mills SE, Smolkin ME, Theodorescu D |title=Atypical small acinar proliferation: biopsy artefact or distinct pathological entity |journal=BJU International |volume=99 |issue=4 |pages=780-5 |year=2007 |month=January |pmid= |doi= |url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/118508438/abstract}}</ref>
 
===Histologic characteristics===
*Atypical appearing acini.
*Limited extent, e.g. 2-3 glands.
*IHC not contributory.
*Deeper cuts didn't yield anything.
 
===Association with adenocarcinoma===
*On subsequent [[biopsy]] - chance of finding [[adenocarcinoma]] is approximately 40%; this is higher than if there is [[high-grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia]] (HGPIN).<ref>{{cite journal |author=Leite KR, Camara-Lopes LH, Cury J, Dall'oglio MF, Sañudo A, Srougi M |title=Prostate cancer detection at rebiopsy after an initial benign diagnosis: results using sextant extended prostate biopsy |journal=Clinics |volume=63 |issue=3 |pages=339–42 |year=2008 |month=June |pmid=18568243 |doi= |url=http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1807-59322008000300009&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en}}</ref>
 
===Management===
*ASAP is considered an [[indication]] for re-biopsy;<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bostwick DG, Meiers I |title=Atypical small acinar proliferation in the prostate: clinical significance in 2006 |journal=Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med. |volume=130 |issue=7 |pages=952–7 |year=2006 |month=July |pmid=16831049 |doi= |url=http://journals.allenpress.com/jrnlserv/?request=get-abstract&issn=0003-9985&volume=130&page=952}}</ref> in one survey of [[urologist]]s<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rubin MA, Bismar TA, Curtis S, Montie JE |title=Prostate needle biopsy reporting: how are the surgical members of the Society of Urologic Oncology using pathology reports to guide treatment of prostate cancer patients? |journal=Am. J. Surg. Pathol. |volume=28 |issue=7 |pages=946–52 |year=2004 |month=July |pmid=15223967 |doi= |url=}}</ref> 41/42 (~98%) of respondents considered it a sufficient reason to re-biopsy.


Ref.:[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atypical_small_acinar_proliferation ASAP (en.wikipedia.org)].
=Prostate cancer=
{{Main|Prostate cancer}}
This is a big topic that is dealt with in its own article.


==See also==
=See also=
*[[Urothelium]].
*[[Urothelium]].
*[[Genitourinary pathology]].
*[[Genitourinary pathology]].


==References==
=References=
{{reflist|2}}
{{reflist|2}}


==External links==
*[http://www.cap.org/apps/docs/committees/cancer/cancer_protocols/2006/prostate06_ckw.pdf CAP prostate check list] - cap.org.
*[http://www.cap.org/apps/docs/committees/cancer/cancer_protocols/2006/prostate06_ckw.pdf CAP prostate protocol] - cap.org.
*[http://162.129.103.34/prostate/ Gleason score quiz] - Johns Hopkins Prostate Center.


[[Category: Genitourinary pathology]]
[[Category: Genitourinary pathology]]

Latest revision as of 19:21, 10 February 2019

The prostate gland and its surrounding structures. (WC/NCI)

The prostate gland adds juice to the sperm. In old men it creates a lot of problems... nodular hyperplasia (commonly called BPH or benign prostatic hyperplasia) and cancer (usually adenocarcinoma).

Prostate cancer is such a big topic it is dealt with in its own article.

The female homologue of the prostate gland is considered to be Skene's gland.[1]

Normal prostate gland

Anatomy

Divided into three zones:[2]

  1. Peripheral zone - posterior aspect, palpable with digit.
  2. Central zone - considered resistant to disease.
  3. Transition zone - usual location for nodular hyperplasia.

Histology

  • Glands have two cell layers (similar to glands in breast).
    • Second cell layer may be difficult to see (like in breast).
  • Epithelium in glands is "folded" or "tufted".
    • Very important - helps to differentiate from Gleason pattern 3.
  • Luminal epithelium often clear cytoplasm.
  • Single nucleus.

Benign normal:

  • Corpora amylacea.
    • Round/ovoid-eosinophilic bodies -- with laminations (layered appearance).
    • In gland lumina.
    • Usually in benign glands - but cannot be used to exclude cancer.[3]
    • Very common.
    • These should be differentiated from eosinophilic proteinaceous debris - which is associated with cancer.

Negatives:

  • No nucleoli present (if you see nuclei think: cancer, HGPIN, reactive changes, basal cell hyperplasia).
  • No mitoses - these are uncommon... even in high grade prostate cancer.

Notes:

Images

  • Benign prostate with corpora amylacea - low mag. (WC/Nephron)

  • Benign prostate with corpora amylacea - high mag. (WC/Nephron)

IHC of normal prostate

Normal prostate:

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Staining slightly abnormal - morphology not definitely abnormal

COMMENT:
Very focal AMACR staining is seen; this is interpreted as negative, in the
context of no definite cytologic changes.  The basal cells appear to be 
preserved in all of the tissue sampled.

Compatible with previous biopsy

COMMENT:
Siderophages are seen in several cores; this is compatible with the history 
of a previous biopsy.

Other accessory glands

Bulbourethral gland

  • AKA Cowper's gland.
Main article: Bulbourethral gland

Seminal vesicles

Main article: Seminal vesicles

Specimens

Approach

  • Know the common diagnoses well.
  • Core biopsies - scan the slides with the 10x objective.

Common diagnoses

  • Benign.
    • Atrophy - may resemble adenocarcinoma - typically not reported.
    • Adenosis - may resemble adenocarcinoma - typically not reported.
  • Prostate adenocarcinoma.
  • HGPIN (high-grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia) - prostate adenocarcinoma precursor lesion.
  • ASAP (atypical small acinar proliferation) - used if you have a few abnormal appearing glands... but can't decide between prostate adenocarcinoma & benign.
  • Chronic inflammation.
  • Acute inflammation - can result in an elevated PSA and may have prompted the biopsy you're looking at.
  • Nodular hyperplasia of the prostate; AKA benign prostatic hypertrophy (BPH).
    • Not diagnosed on needle biopsies.
    • BPH is technically incorrect -- the process is a hyperplasia.
      • Hyperplasia = proliferation of cells, hypertrophy = enlargement of cells.
        • How to remember? A. Prostate... hyperPlasia.

Clinical history

Main article: Prostate specific antigen
  • PSA (serum).
    • >10 ng/mL worrisome for prostate cancer.
    • Normal is age dependent - increases with age, usu. cut-off ~ 4 ng/mL.
  • HIFU = High Intensity Focused Ultrasound - an ablation procedure for prostate cancer.[6]

Benign changes and remnants

Adenosis of the prostate gland

  • AKA atypical adenomatous hyperplasia of the prostate gland (or atypical adenomatous hyperplasia).
Main article: Adenosis of the prostate gland

Basal cell hyperplasia of the prostate

Main article: Basal cell hyperplasia of the prostate

Atrophy of the prostate

  • AKA atrophy.
  • AKA prostatic atrophy.
  • AKA atrophy of the prostate gland.
Main article: Atrophy of the prostate gland

Mesonephric remnant of the prostate gland

Main article: Mesonephric remnant of the prostate gland

Benign conditions

Prostatic nodular hyperplasia

  • AKA nodular hyperplasia of the prostate.
  • AKA benign prostatic hyperplasia (abbreviated BPH).
  • AKA benign prostatic hypertrophy.
    • This is a misnomer. It is not a hypertrophy.
Main article: Nodular hyperplasia of the prostate

Acute inflammation of the prostate gland

Prostate gland
External resources
EHVSC 10176
  • AKA prostate gland with acute inflammation.

General

  • A may lead to an increase in the PSA and prompt biopsy.

Note:

  • "Prostatitis" is considered a clinical diagnosis.
    • Cases are signed out as "acute inflammation".
      • Some pathologists do not comment on the presence (or absence) of inflammation.

Microscopic

Features:

  • Neutrophils within the glands, between the epithelial cells or within the stroma - key feature.
  • +/-Chronic inflammation (lymphocytes) within the surrounding stroma.

DDx:

Image

  • Prostate with acute inflammation. (WC/Nephron)

Sign out

G. PROSTATE, LEFT LATERAL SUPERIOR, BIOPSY:
- BENIGN PROSTATE TISSUE;
- FOCAL ACUTE INFLAMMATION. 

G. PROSTATE, LEFT LATERAL SUPERIOR, BIOPSY:
- BENIGN PROSTATE TISSUE;
- FOCAL ACUTE AND CHRONIC INFLAMMATION.

Chronic inflammation not otherwise specified

General

  • Common.
  • Non-specific finding.
  • Etiology usually not apparent on histomorphology.

Microscopic

Features:

  • Lymphocytes within the glands, between the epithelial cells or within the stroma - key feature.

Notes:

  • Rare scattered lymphocytes are common, especially in the central portion of the gland.
  • "Focal" one field with a 2.2 mm diameter involved.

Image

  • Prostate with chronic inflammation. (WC/Nephron)

Sign out

G. PROSTATE, LEFT LATERAL SUPERIOR, BIOPSY:
- BENIGN PROSTATE TISSUE;
- FOCAL CHRONIC INFLAMMATION. 

F. PROSTATE, RIGHT MEDIAL MIDZONE, BIOPSY:
- BENIGN PROSTATE TISSUE;
- CHRONIC INFLAMMATION.

Note:

  • Opinion is divided on whether this finding should be reported.
    • Advocates for reporting inflammation say "[i]t is just reporting what you see and may explain the bump in PSA."
    • Naysayers opine that "[i]t may provide false assurance that no cancer is present."

Granulomatous prostatitis

Main article: Granulomatous prostatitis

Prostatic infarct

General

Microscopic

Features:

  • Classic findings of necrosis:
    • Karyolysis (loss of nuclei), karyorrhexis (frag. of nuclei), pyknosis (small shrunken nuclei).
  • +/-Squamous metaplasia of prostate gland epithelium.

Notes:

  • Corpora amylacea - help... call it benign.
  • Glands maintain normal spacing.

DDx:

Image:

Preneoplastic changes and atypical changes

High-grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia

  • Abbreviated as HGPIN.
  • May be referred to as prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia, abbreviated PIN.
Main article: High-grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia

Atypical small acinar proliferation

  • Abbreviated ASAP.
  • AKA suspicious for carcinoma.[8]
    • ASAP is preferred as it does not contain the word carcinoma and, thus, cannot be misread as carcinoma, i.e. positive for malignancy.
Main article: Atypical small acinar proliferation

Prostate cancer

Main article: Prostate cancer

This is a big topic that is dealt with in its own article.

See also

References

  1. ↑ Dodson, MK.; Cliby, WA.; Pettavel, PP.; Keeney, GL.; Podratz, KC. (Dec 1995). "Female urethral adenocarcinoma: evidence for more than one tissue of origin?". Gynecol Oncol 59 (3): 352-7. doi:10.1006/gyno.1995.9963. PMID 8522254.
  2. ↑ McNeal, JE. (Aug 1988). "Normal histology of the prostate.". Am J Surg Pathol 12 (8): 619-33. PMID 2456702.
  3. ↑ Christian JD, Lamm TC, Morrow JF, Bostwick DG (January 2005). "Corpora amylacea in adenocarcinoma of the prostate: incidence and histology within needle core biopsies". Mod. Pathol. 18 (1): 36–9. doi:10.1038/modpathol.3800250.
  4. ↑ Trpkov, K.; Bartczak-McKay, J.; Yilmaz, A. (Aug 2009). "Usefulness of cytokeratin 5/6 and AMACR applied as double sequential immunostains for diagnostic assessment of problematic prostate specimens.". Am J Clin Pathol 132 (2): 211-20; quiz 307. doi:10.1309/AJCPGFJP83IXZEUR. PMID 19605815.
  5. ↑ URL: http://www.cancer.gov/dictionary?cdrid=446218. Accessed on: 23 February 2012.
  6. ↑ URL: http://www.internationalhifu.com/what-is-hifu-mainmenu-132.html. Accessed on: 15 June 2010.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Milord, RA.; Kahane, H.; Epstein, JI. (Oct 2000). "Infarct of the prostate gland: experience on needle biopsy specimens.". Am J Surg Pathol 24 (10): 1378-84. PMID 11023099.
  8. ↑ THvdK. 19 June 2010.
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